<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?><rss xmlns:dc="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xmlns:content="http://purl.org/rss/1.0/modules/content/" xmlns:atom="http://www.w3.org/2005/Atom" version="2.0" xmlns:itunes="http://www.itunes.com/dtds/podcast-1.0.dtd" xmlns:googleplay="http://www.google.com/schemas/play-podcasts/1.0"><channel><title><![CDATA[Tricontinental Political Economy]]></title><description><![CDATA[Political economy from the three continents that produce the world's wealth and retain the least of it. Tools for understanding why the chains persist, and how to break them.]]></description><link>https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com</link><image><url>https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kcDn!,w_256,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7bfc009f-d558-43fb-b2ed-6bb584b5845c_1280x1280.png</url><title>Tricontinental Political Economy</title><link>https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com</link></image><generator>Substack</generator><lastBuildDate>Sat, 30 May 2026 20:40:02 GMT</lastBuildDate><atom:link href="https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/feed" rel="self" type="application/rss+xml"/><copyright><![CDATA[Department of Political Economy - Tricontinental]]></copyright><language><![CDATA[en]]></language><webMaster><![CDATA[triconpoliticaleconomy@substack.com]]></webMaster><itunes:owner><itunes:email><![CDATA[triconpoliticaleconomy@substack.com]]></itunes:email><itunes:name><![CDATA[Tricon Political Economy]]></itunes:name></itunes:owner><itunes:author><![CDATA[Tricon Political Economy]]></itunes:author><googleplay:owner><![CDATA[triconpoliticaleconomy@substack.com]]></googleplay:owner><googleplay:email><![CDATA[triconpoliticaleconomy@substack.com]]></googleplay:email><googleplay:author><![CDATA[Tricon Political Economy]]></googleplay:author><itunes:block><![CDATA[Yes]]></itunes:block><item><title><![CDATA[¿Quién controla la cadena?]]></title><description><![CDATA[La palanca productiva de la soberan&#237;a]]></description><link>https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/quien-controla-la-cadena</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/quien-controla-la-cadena</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Tricon Political Economy]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Wed, 27 May 2026 06:08:18 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/6e477899-8d8d-4f01-807a-1147413a3f87_1024x1024.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Por Emiliano L&#243;pez</strong></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Un cami&#243;n cargado de litio sale de un salar situado en lo alto de la Puna, en la frontera entre Argentina y Chile, donde la salmuera ha pasado dieciocho meses evapor&#225;ndose en estanques de color turquesa del tama&#241;o de peque&#241;os pueblos. Atraviesa los Andes, llega a un puerto del Pac&#237;fico y zarpa hacia China. Unos meses m&#225;s tarde, una fracci&#243;n de ese mismo litio regresa a Sudam&#233;rica &#8212;no como materia prima, sino como las celdas de un coche el&#233;ctrico importado, o como la bater&#237;a para el almacenamiento estacionario de una instalaci&#243;n de energ&#237;a solar&#8212;, a un precio muchas veces superior al que ten&#237;a cuando parti&#243;. El mineral hizo un viaje de ida y vuelta. El valor, no. Se baj&#243; del barco en Ningde y nunca volvi&#243;.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Esta no es una historia sobre un pa&#237;s que no logr&#243; construir f&#225;bricas. Es una historia sobre qui&#233;n es el due&#241;o de la cadena &#8212;y es la pregunta productiva a la que han girado las notas anteriores de esta serie. Argumentamos primero que la teor&#237;a marxista de la dependencia sigue siendo la lente indispensable para leer la econom&#237;a mundial desde el punto de vista de los tres continentes que producen su riqueza y se quedan con la menor parte de ella. A continuaci&#243;n, demostramos, a trav&#233;s del ratio de Baran, que las burgues&#237;as perif&#233;ricas desv&#237;an sistem&#225;ticamente el excedente econ&#243;mico de la inversi&#243;n productiva y, a trav&#233;s de la correa financiera, c&#243;mo lo que no se invierte se escapa en forma de servicio de la deuda, arbitraje y fuga de capitales. Cada una de esas notas planteaba una variante de la misma pregunta: &#191;ad&#243;nde va el excedente? Esta nota, en particular, se pregunta qu&#233; se desprende de ello. Supongamos que un pa&#237;s pudiera quedarse con el excedente e invertirlo. &#191;Qu&#233; deber&#237;a construir y por qu&#233;, si construir lo incorrecto, lo dejar&#237;a en posiciones tan dependientes como antes?</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>La paradoja de la alta tecnolog&#237;a</strong></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Comencemos con un hecho que la historia del desarrollo de los libros de texto no puede explicar. M&#233;xico y Malasia exportan muchos m&#225;s productos de alta tecnolog&#237;a que Brasil o Argentina. Seg&#250;n todos los indicadores que al Banco Mundial le gusta destacar &#8212;sofisticaci&#243;n de las exportaciones, cuota de la industria manufacturera, integraci&#243;n en las cadenas de valor globales&#8212;, han hecho lo que se le dice a la periferia que haga. Y no son menos dependientes en t&#233;rminos tecnol&#243;gicos, sino que, por el contrario, lo son m&#225;s.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">En nuestro &#205;ndice de Dependencia Estructural, la dependencia tecnol&#243;gica de Malasia es de 0,87 y la de M&#233;xico de 0,75 &#8212;entre las puntuaciones m&#225;s altas de toda la muestra, que aqu&#237; a&#250;n no incluye a las econom&#237;as africanas&#8212;, mientras que China se sit&#250;a en 0,39 y Corea del Sur en 0,40, aunque ambas exportan un porcentaje similar de bienes de alta tecnolog&#237;a. La paradoja se disipa en el momento en que dejamos de confundir la exportaci&#243;n de una tecnolog&#237;a con su producci&#243;n. M&#233;xico y Malasia ensamblan componentes importados en productos acabados que cruzan la frontera con el sello de &#171;alta tecnolog&#237;a&#187;. Los chips, los dise&#241;os, las patentes, las m&#225;quinas que fabrican las m&#225;quinas: todo ese valor se crea en otros lugares y simplemente pasa por estos pa&#237;ses. Los pa&#237;ses funcionan como un taller dentro de la f&#225;brica de otro estado.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Figura 1. La paradoja de la alta tecnolog&#237;a.</strong></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_N4r!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2343e612-99e8-4541-9ee1-39a20fc04b81_3150x1727.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_N4r!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2343e612-99e8-4541-9ee1-39a20fc04b81_3150x1727.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_N4r!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2343e612-99e8-4541-9ee1-39a20fc04b81_3150x1727.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_N4r!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2343e612-99e8-4541-9ee1-39a20fc04b81_3150x1727.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_N4r!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2343e612-99e8-4541-9ee1-39a20fc04b81_3150x1727.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_N4r!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2343e612-99e8-4541-9ee1-39a20fc04b81_3150x1727.png" width="3150" height="1727" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_N4r!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2343e612-99e8-4541-9ee1-39a20fc04b81_3150x1727.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_N4r!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2343e612-99e8-4541-9ee1-39a20fc04b81_3150x1727.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_N4r!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2343e612-99e8-4541-9ee1-39a20fc04b81_3150x1727.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_N4r!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2343e612-99e8-4541-9ee1-39a20fc04b81_3150x1727.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;"></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Fuente: autores a partir de la base de datos del proyecto Dependency Lab-Global South Insights.</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Giovanni Arrighi, al interpretar la <em>longue dur&#233;e</em> del sistema mundial, le dio a ello su propio nombre: la perifericizaci&#243;n de las actividades industriales. La industrializaci&#243;n produce la apariencia de desarrollo al tiempo que reproduce la esencia de la subordinaci&#243;n. Las f&#225;bricas, los puestos de trabajo y las cifras de exportaci&#243;n son reales; lo que falta es la cadena. Esto es, la densa red de proveedores, ingenieros y etapas de alto valor que convierte una f&#225;brica en un sistema productivo nacional en lugar de un punto de tr&#225;nsito. La cuesti&#243;n que determina el desarrollo, por tanto, no es si un pa&#237;s se ha industrializado, sino si la cadena se cierra en la econom&#237;a nacional o se desborda en cada eslab&#243;n. No hay lugar m&#225;s claro para ver c&#243;mo se responde a esa pregunta que en las materias primas por las que el mundo est&#225; ahora en disputa: los llamados minerales cr&#237;ticos.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>D&#243;nde reside el valor</strong></p><p style="text-align: justify;">La bater&#237;a de iones de litio ya no es un nicho en la transici&#243;n energ&#233;tica, ni mucho menos. El mercado de las bater&#237;as movi&#243; m&#225;s de 235.000 millones de d&#243;lares en 2023 y se expande entre un 15 y un 20 por ciento al a&#241;o, lo que lo sit&#250;a entre las mayores industrias emergentes, por delante, en t&#233;rminos puramente econ&#243;micos, de varios sectores que acaparan la prensa empresarial. Los veh&#237;culos el&#233;ctricos por s&#237; solos representan aproximadamente el 72 % de la demanda y uno de cada cinco coches vendidos en el planeta es ahora el&#233;ctrico.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Detr&#225;s de esas cifras se esconde algo a&#250;n m&#225;s trascendental. La bater&#237;a est&#225; emergiendo como el sector l&#237;der de una nueva onda larga de crecimiento: la tecnolog&#237;a y el conjunto de industrias que genera, en torno a las cuales se reorganiza toda una fase de acumulaci&#243;n. Kondratiev traz&#243; por primera vez estos ciclos largos, Schumpeter los vincul&#243; a oleadas de innovaci&#243;n y Ernest Mandel reformul&#243; el argumento en t&#233;rminos marxistas; todos ellos observaron que las econom&#237;as que dominan el sector l&#237;der tienden a dominar la era que este sector define. Durante la mayor parte del siglo XX, ese sector fue el del autom&#243;vil, con su petr&#243;leo y sus cadenas de montaje, y la jerarqu&#237;a industrial de la &#233;poca &#8212;desde Estados Unidos hasta Alemania, Jap&#243;n y Corea&#8212; sigui&#243; la capacidad de fabricar autom&#243;viles y la base de proveedores que la sustentaba. Las nuevas energ&#237;as est&#225;n dando ahora lugar a su sucesor, y la bater&#237;a de iones de litio es su n&#250;cleo m&#225;s probable. Este es el tipo de cl&#250;ster que Carlota P&#233;rez denomina paradigma tecnoecon&#243;mico y que Arrighi interpreta como el inicio de un ciclo sist&#233;mico. Para la periferia, lo que est&#225; en juego aqu&#237; es concreto. Una econom&#237;a excluida del sector l&#237;der de una ola larga pierde la ingenier&#237;a y la base de proveedores que se acumulan a su alrededor, y tiende a pasar las d&#233;cadas siguientes importando lo que nunca desarroll&#243; la capacidad de fabricar.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Aqu&#237; hay valor por capturar; la verdadera pregunta es en qu&#233; punto de la cadena se encuentra, y qui&#233;n posee esa parte. El valor de una bater&#237;a se concentra en la celda: las celdas representan aproximadamente el 79 % del total, mientras que el montaje final del paquete &#8212;la etapa visible y de alta intensidad de mano de obra que m&#225;s se parece a una f&#225;brica&#8212; representa solo alrededor de una quinta parte y est&#225; en descenso. Dentro de la celda, los materiales activos y, sobre todo, el c&#225;todo representan entre el 53 % y el 61 % del coste. En la periferia, el patr&#243;n es implacable. Los dos eslabones que normalmente se le asignan &#8212;la extracci&#243;n, por un lado, y el montaje de los paquetes, por el otro&#8212; son los que menos valor generan. La fase intermedia, en la que el mineral se convierte en c&#225;todo y &#225;nodo y ambos se transforman en celdas, es la que concentra los beneficios y el tramo que China se propuso controlar.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Si seguimos la participaci&#243;n, eslab&#243;n a eslab&#243;n, se perfila una estrategia que ninguna doctrina de la ventaja comparativa puede explicar. China posee menos del 7 % de las reservas mundiales de litio y extrae menos de una quinta parte de la materia prima; no cuenta con el recurso. Pero si se asciende desde el mineral hacia el <em>core</em> de la producci&#243;n de valor, su cuota aumenta a cada paso: el refinado de carbonato de litio ronda el 65 % &#8212;con Chile al 15% y Argentina al 8%, lo que significa que la salmuera del propio tri&#225;ngulo se refina en otros lugares&#8212;, los materiales de c&#225;todo rondan el 85%, los de &#225;nodo el 95%, electrolitos el 80%, separadores el 75%, celdas acabadas el 83%, y m&#225;s del 80 % de la capacidad de producci&#243;n mundial en total, que supera en m&#225;s de un 300% su propia demanda interna. El grafito esf&#233;rico utilizado como &#225;nodo se refina pr&#225;cticamente en su totalidad en China. Esta es la huella no de mano de obra barata ni de dotaci&#243;n natural, sino de un ascenso deliberado hacia los eslabones de mayor valor de la cadena: m&#225;s d&#233;bil donde el valor es menor y m&#225;s fuerte donde se concentra.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Figura 2. &#191;D&#243;nde est&#225; el valor y qui&#233;n lo posee?</strong></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Nkw9!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6da8bde2-4ce6-4aa2-8280-be2be77ae07b_3150x1714.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Nkw9!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6da8bde2-4ce6-4aa2-8280-be2be77ae07b_3150x1714.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Nkw9!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6da8bde2-4ce6-4aa2-8280-be2be77ae07b_3150x1714.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Nkw9!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6da8bde2-4ce6-4aa2-8280-be2be77ae07b_3150x1714.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Nkw9!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6da8bde2-4ce6-4aa2-8280-be2be77ae07b_3150x1714.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Nkw9!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6da8bde2-4ce6-4aa2-8280-be2be77ae07b_3150x1714.png" width="3150" height="1714" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Nkw9!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6da8bde2-4ce6-4aa2-8280-be2be77ae07b_3150x1714.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Nkw9!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6da8bde2-4ce6-4aa2-8280-be2be77ae07b_3150x1714.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Nkw9!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6da8bde2-4ce6-4aa2-8280-be2be77ae07b_3150x1714.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Nkw9!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6da8bde2-4ce6-4aa2-8280-be2be77ae07b_3150x1714.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Fuente: elaboraci&#243;n del autor basada en datos de BloombergNEF, la AIE, Avicenne Energy y Benchmark Mineral Intelligence (2024).</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Y la ventaja fue construida, no heredada, y esta es la parte que los consultores de desarrollo con anteojeras occidentales no pueden asimilar. El precio de un paquete de bater&#237;as cay&#243; de 1.391 d&#243;lares por kilovatio-hora en 2010 a 131 d&#243;lares por kilovatio-hora en 2024, una ca&#237;da de m&#225;s del 90%, impulsada por la escala y una tasa de aprendizaje &#8212;m&#225;s acusada en la qu&#237;mica del fosfato de hierro y litio (LFP), barata y sin cobalto&#8212; que los competidores de Corea, Estados Unidos y Europa nunca igualaron. China no descubri&#243; una ventaja comparativa en las bater&#237;as para luego explotarla. Eligi&#243; el sector, dirigi&#243; el cr&#233;dito y la investigaci&#243;n hacia &#233;l, toler&#243; a&#241;os de exceso de capacidad y construy&#243; la ventaja hasta que se consolid&#243; como un hecho que el resto del mundo ahora considera natural. Por tanto, no fue la magia del mercado la que produjo este resultado; lo hizo una decisi&#243;n pol&#237;tica sostenida.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Figura 3. Una ventaja fabricada.</strong></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6Zhh!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2faeddda-3bc4-4136-a3cc-eedf8bb83104_3150x1674.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6Zhh!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2faeddda-3bc4-4136-a3cc-eedf8bb83104_3150x1674.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6Zhh!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2faeddda-3bc4-4136-a3cc-eedf8bb83104_3150x1674.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6Zhh!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2faeddda-3bc4-4136-a3cc-eedf8bb83104_3150x1674.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6Zhh!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2faeddda-3bc4-4136-a3cc-eedf8bb83104_3150x1674.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6Zhh!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2faeddda-3bc4-4136-a3cc-eedf8bb83104_3150x1674.png" width="3150" height="1674" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/2faeddda-3bc4-4136-a3cc-eedf8bb83104_3150x1674.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1674,&quot;width&quot;:3150,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:326976,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/199423803?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd1f8e6ee-214b-4591-a061-fd79627f1460_3150x2040.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6Zhh!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2faeddda-3bc4-4136-a3cc-eedf8bb83104_3150x1674.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6Zhh!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2faeddda-3bc4-4136-a3cc-eedf8bb83104_3150x1674.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6Zhh!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2faeddda-3bc4-4136-a3cc-eedf8bb83104_3150x1674.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6Zhh!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2faeddda-3bc4-4136-a3cc-eedf8bb83104_3150x1674.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Fuente: elaboraci&#243;n del autor, basada en BloombergNEF y la IEA.</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Si se juntan estas tres conclusiones, el recorrido del litio cuenta toda la historia. El mineral se encuentra en el tri&#225;ngulo y en otras regiones (por ejemplo, Australia); el valor se concentra en China. La salmuera se evapora en las salinas de Atacama y la Puna; se env&#237;a en forma de concentrado y regresa &#8212;si es que regresa&#8212; como una celda acabada a un precio que el pa&#237;s exportador nunca podr&#237;a obtener. Esto es, en su forma m&#225;s pura, la dimensi&#243;n productiva de la dependencia dentro de la din&#225;mica de las cadenas de valor globales, y vale la pena precisar por qu&#233; se trata de dependencia y no de desgracia. Al tri&#225;ngulo del litio no le falta el recurso; alberga aproximadamente la mitad del suministro mundial. Carece de la cadena: las refiner&#237;as, las plantas de c&#225;todos y electrolitos, las gigaf&#225;bricas, los ingenieros, las empresas proveedoras que abastecen cada etapa, la demanda interna que impulsar&#237;a toda la estructura. Cada eslab&#243;n perdido es un punto en el que el valor, el empleo, el aprendizaje y el excedente abandonan la econom&#237;a nacional. La extracci&#243;n sin la cadena es la repetici&#243;n en el siglo XXI de extraer plata de Potos&#237; y ver c&#243;mo se la llevan en barco a Sevilla. El mineral ha cambiado, pero la estructura es la misma.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>El circuito inconcluso de Marini</strong></p><p style="text-align: justify;">&#191;Por qu&#233; ocurre esto y sigue ocurriendo con una materia prima tras otra? La teor&#237;a de la dependencia respondi&#243; a la pregunta hace medio siglo, en un lenguaje m&#225;s agudo que el que han empleado desde entonces los economistas del crecimiento. Ruy Mauro Marini describi&#243; el circuito del capital en una econom&#237;a dependiente como un circuito truncado. En la secuencia cl&#225;sica &#8212;en la que el dinero se convierte en medio de producci&#243;n y la mano de obra, que a su vez se convierte en mercanc&#237;a, se vende a cambio de m&#225;s dinero&#8212;, el momento decisivo es la producci&#243;n, la fase en la que realmente se crea valor y la econom&#237;a nacional se consolida o se debilita. En una econom&#237;a soberana, el circuito se cierra en el pa&#237;s: el excedente generado en la producci&#243;n se reinvierte en la producci&#243;n, los proveedores se multiplican, la capacidad se acumula y cada vuelta del ciclo deja la estructura productiva m&#225;s densa que antes. En una econom&#237;a dependiente, el circuito se rompe y se desv&#237;a hacia el centro. Los insumos se importan en lugar de fabricarse; las etapas de alto valor se producen en el extranjero y el excedente generado drena al exterior a trav&#233;s de las remesas de beneficios, de los canales financieros descritos en la nota anterior y del simple hecho de que los eslabones m&#225;s lucrativos son propiedad de otros y se encuentran en otros lugares.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Figura 4. El circuito truncado.</strong></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rGRj!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3288818a-163f-4f06-b433-c4effb77d3ff_3300x2060.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rGRj!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3288818a-163f-4f06-b433-c4effb77d3ff_3300x2060.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rGRj!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3288818a-163f-4f06-b433-c4effb77d3ff_3300x2060.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rGRj!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3288818a-163f-4f06-b433-c4effb77d3ff_3300x2060.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rGRj!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3288818a-163f-4f06-b433-c4effb77d3ff_3300x2060.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rGRj!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3288818a-163f-4f06-b433-c4effb77d3ff_3300x2060.png" width="3300" height="2060" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/3288818a-163f-4f06-b433-c4effb77d3ff_3300x2060.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:2060,&quot;width&quot;:3300,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:473108,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/199423803?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F469c4d3d-4ae8-480d-ba96-f0c0ff5462d2_3300x2280.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rGRj!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3288818a-163f-4f06-b433-c4effb77d3ff_3300x2060.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rGRj!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3288818a-163f-4f06-b433-c4effb77d3ff_3300x2060.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rGRj!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3288818a-163f-4f06-b433-c4effb77d3ff_3300x2060.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rGRj!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3288818a-163f-4f06-b433-c4effb77d3ff_3300x2060.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;">Lo que Albert Hirschman denomin&#243; &#171;v&#237;nculos&#187; &#8212;la forma en que una industria, plantada en el suelo adecuado, da lugar a otras en las fases anteriores y posteriores&#8212; no se forman, o se forman al otro lado del oc&#233;ano. La econom&#237;a se industrializa en apariencia y se desarticula en realidad. Por eso, la palanca productiva no es, a pesar de lo que la nota anterior pudiera haber dado a entender, la tasa de inversi&#243;n. Un pa&#237;s puede mantener una tasa de inversi&#243;n elevada y seguir inyectando capital en un enclave sin ra&#237;ces en el resto de la econom&#237;a. La maquila no adolece de falta de inversi&#243;n; adolece de falta de &#8220;v&#237;nculos&#8221;. La palanca es la internalizaci&#243;n del circuito: la inversi&#243;n que construye los eslabones faltantes obliga a la cadena a cerrarse en el territorio nacional y convierte un nodo de ensamblaje en un sistema articulado. Lo que produce un pa&#237;s importa menos que si su producci&#243;n se entrelazara con el resto de la econom&#237;a.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Desconexi&#243;n, a la inversa</strong></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Aqu&#237;, la tradici&#243;n debe actualizarse en lugar de simplemente repetirse. Samir Amin aport&#243; el concepto estrat&#233;gico y lo primero que hay que decir al respecto &#8212;pues en nuestras notas previas ya hemos insistido en ello&#8212; es que la desconexi&#243;n no es autarqu&#237;a. Amin fue expl&#237;cito: significa subordinar las relaciones externas a la l&#243;gica del desarrollo interno, invirtiendo la relaci&#243;n de dependencia para que la econom&#237;a se enfrente al mundo en sus propios t&#233;rminos, en lugar de organizar toda su estructura productiva en torno a las necesidades del centro. Se trata de un cambio en quien establece las prioridades, no de un repliegue tras un muro.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Pero Amin teoriz&#243; sobre la desvinculaci&#243;n en la d&#233;cada de 1980, mientras el proyecto del Tercer Mundo se desmantelaba a su alrededor, y el concepto llevaba consigo un inevitable matiz de retirada: salir de una econom&#237;a mundial hostil. El siglo XXI impone una lectura diferente. China no se desconect&#243; al salir del mundo. Se desconect&#243; cambiando la forma de su integraci&#243;n y, al hacerlo, lo hizo con el control de la cadena que M&#233;xico simplemente deja pasar. Esto es desvinculaci&#243;n a la inversa: no menos integraci&#243;n, sino una integraci&#243;n reorganizada para que la econom&#237;a nacional se construya en lugar de agotarla. Los instrumentos est&#225;n bien documentados y, le&#237;dos en conjunto, constituyen una doctrina coherente: controles de capital, para que el excedente no pudiera simplemente escapar; requisitos de transferencia de tecnolog&#237;a impuestos a los inversores extranjeros como precio de acceso al mercado; propiedad estatal de los sectores clave, para que los eslabones m&#225;s estrat&#233;gicos nunca estuvieran en venta; cr&#233;dito paciente y dirigido de los bancos estatales destinado a los segmentos que el pa&#237;s pretend&#237;a captar; y una participaci&#243;n selectiva y condicionada en los mercados globales en lugar de la apertura incondicional que el FMI prescrib&#237;a para todos los dem&#225;s. Isabella Weber ha demostrado que esta condicionalidad de la integraci&#243;n &#8212;m&#225;s que su rechazo&#8212; fue la clave para que China escapara de la terapia de choque que arras&#243; con gran parte del resto de la periferia. Detr&#225;s de todo ello se esconde la vieja iron&#237;a que Ha-Joon Chang se&#241;al&#243;: los mismos instrumentos que los pa&#237;ses ricos utilizaron para ascender son los que ahora proh&#237;ben a quienes los siguen, pateando la escalera tras de s&#237;.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Y nada de esto fue improvisado. Se puso por escrito, plan tras plan. El <em>Duod&#233;cimo Plan Quinquenal de China</em>, publicado en 2011 &#8212;antes de que nadie hablara del dominio chino en el sector de las bater&#237;as&#8212; ya mencionaba los veh&#237;culos de nueva energ&#237;a, las nuevas energ&#237;as y los nuevos materiales entre las &#171;industrias emergentes estrat&#233;gicas&#187; (&#25112;&#30053;&#24615;&#26032;&#20852;&#20135;&#19994;) que el Estado construir&#237;a deliberadamente, indicando que la industria de los veh&#237;culos de nueva energ&#237;a &#171;se centrara en el desarrollo de veh&#237;culos h&#237;bridos enchufables y totalmente el&#233;ctricos&#187; y creando fondos estatales espec&#237;ficos para financiarlos. Cinco a&#241;os m&#225;s tarde, el Decimotercer Plan afin&#243; el objetivo. Estableci&#243; para las industrias emergentes estrat&#233;gicas una meta del 15 % del PIB e identific&#243;, como frontera tecnol&#243;gica para los veh&#237;culos de nueva energ&#237;a, la variable en la que m&#225;s tarde se decidir&#237;a la guerra mundial de las bater&#237;as: la densidad energ&#233;tica de las bater&#237;as, junto con la recuperaci&#243;n y el reciclaje de bater&#237;as usadas, la &#171;segunda oportunidad&#187; a la que volveremos. Los dos planes siguientes comenzaron a consolidar el sector. El <em>Decimocuarto</em>, en 2021, convirti&#243; la propia cadena en el objetivo, y su lenguaje es concreto en el original: insta a &#171;complementar y fortalecer la cadena&#187; de fabricaci&#243;n (&#25512;&#36827;&#21046;&#36896;&#19994;&#34917;&#38142;&#24378;&#38142;) y a elevar la &#171;competitividad de toda la cadena industrial&#187; (&#20840;&#20135;&#19994;&#38142;&#31454;&#20105;&#21147;) de las nuevas energ&#237;as y los campos adyacentes, a construir cadenas de suministro con mayor valor a&#241;adido y m&#225;s seguras, y a establecer un sistema global de alerta temprana para el suministro de recursos cr&#237;ticos. El <em>Decimoquinto,</em> adoptado en marzo de 2026, cierra la l&#243;gica en ambos extremos a la vez. Abre una l&#237;nea espec&#237;fica para las &#171;bater&#237;as de nuevo tipo&#187; (&#26032;&#22411;&#30005;&#27744;) &#8212;materiales de electrodos de alta capacidad, electrolitos de alta conductividad, colectores de corriente compuestos, la pr&#243;xima frontera qu&#237;mica de la c&#233;lula&#8212; bajo el mandato expl&#237;cito de aumentar la &#171;autosuficiencia y controlabilidad&#187; de la cadena industrial (&#20135;&#19994;&#38142;&#33258;&#20027;&#21487;&#25511;), y se dispone a asegurar los insumos que la alimentan: las reservas de minerales estrat&#233;gicos, una ventaja en tierras raras y metales raros y, una vez m&#225;s, el reciclaje de bater&#237;as. Nombrarlo, apuntarlo, asegurarlo, ampliar la frontera y garantizar los insumos: cuatro planes a lo largo de quince a&#241;os, una instrucci&#243;n ininterrumpida. Lo que los economistas occidentales describen ahora como una ventaja comparativa que surgi&#243; de alguna manera inexplicable fue, sobre el papel y con una d&#233;cada y media de antelaci&#243;n, una decisi&#243;n. Le&#237;dos en contraste con la figura 2 y el colapso de los precios de la figura 3, los planes no son un mero tel&#243;n de fondo. El plano y cada escal&#243;n que China subi&#243; hab&#237;an sido nombrados antes de ser conquistados.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">En resumen, la cadena del litio es la modernizaci&#243;n socialista puesta en pr&#225;ctica. China no esper&#243; a adquirir una ventaja comparativa en las bater&#237;as; utiliz&#243; los minerales extranjeros, la inversi&#243;n extranjera y la demanda extranjera como materia prima para una expansi&#243;n nacional, eslab&#243;n a eslab&#243;n, hasta que la cadena se cerr&#243; dentro de sus propias fronteras y la ventaja se convirti&#243; en un hecho que ella misma hab&#237;a fabricado. La desvinculaci&#243;n no implicaba rechazar los recursos del tri&#225;ngulo del litio. Significaba garantizar que el litio del tri&#225;ngulo se refinara, se convirtiera en c&#225;todos y celdas, y se vendiera con ganancias dentro de China. La periferia env&#237;a minerales en bruto y vuelve a comprar la bater&#237;a terminada; China hace lo contrario: captura todas las etapas intermedias.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Dos trampas, no una</strong></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Ser&#237;a f&#225;cil &#8212;y es el reflejo de la ortodoxia&#8212; convertir todo esto en una f&#225;bula moral sobre pa&#237;ses que simplemente &#171;no lograron industrializarse&#187; o, en la versi&#243;n m&#225;s sofisticada, sobre instituciones buenas y malas. Ese es el marco que Daron Acemoglu y James Robinson hicieron famoso: algunas naciones construyen instituciones inclusivas y prosperan; otras caen en instituciones extractivas y se estancan. Pero el &#205;ndice de Dependencia Estructural sit&#250;a la causa en otro lugar. La distancia entre M&#233;xico y China no es la que existe entre instituciones honestas y corruptas; ambos han tenido gobiernos capaces. Es una distancia en la posici&#243;n estructural dentro de la cadena y en la decisi&#243;n pol&#237;tica de capturar esa posici&#243;n o dejarla pasar. Las instituciones importan, pero como instrumentos de esa decisi&#243;n, no como sustituto de la misma. Y los datos dicen algo m&#225;s preciso que &#171;fracaso&#187;, porque la periferia est&#225; atrapada no en una, sino en dos trampas, y ambas exigen soluciones distintas.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Existe la trampa del nodo de ensamblaje, y M&#233;xico, Malasia y Tailandia son sus casos m&#225;s claros: alta sofisticaci&#243;n de las exportaciones, una cadena que atraviesa el pa&#237;s de parte a parte, dependencia tecnol&#243;gica en lo m&#225;s alto de la distribuci&#243;n, porque la producci&#243;n es real, pero el valor es extranjero. La marca estad&#237;stica es la proporci&#243;n de valor extranjero incorporado en sus exportaciones: cerca de un tercio del valor bruto de lo que M&#233;xico y Malasia env&#237;an al extranjero se produjo en otros lugares y simplemente se ensambl&#243; en su territorio, en comparaci&#243;n con algo m&#225;s cercano a una sexta parte en el caso de China. Estas son las econom&#237;as que parecen m&#225;s modernas y que se encuentran entre las m&#225;s dependientes. La soluci&#243;n aqu&#237; es la &#171;cura del litio&#187;: captar los eslabones de alto valor, condicionar a los inversores, desarrollar los proveedores nacionales, obligar a la cadena a echar ra&#237;ces y, de este modo, aumentar el valor agregado nacional de lo que el pa&#237;s ya exporta.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Luego est&#225; la trampa de la matriz estancada y Brasil es su emblema. La dependencia tecnol&#243;gica de Brasil es mucho menor que la de las econom&#237;as de ensamblaje &#8212;0,40 en 2023, frente al 0,75 de M&#233;xico&#8212; porque Brasil construy&#243;, de hecho, una matriz industrial relativamente completa a lo largo del siglo XX. No es una maquila. Pero la instant&#225;nea opaca una advertencia que la trayectoria clarifica: la puntuaci&#243;n de Brasil ha subido de 0,25 en la d&#233;cada de 1990 a 0,40, con la matriz industrial vaci&#225;ndose lentamente &#8212;infrautilizada, de baja productividad, reprimarizada a medida que la soja y el mineral de hierro desplazan a los sectores m&#225;s complejos&#8212; precisamente en los a&#241;os en que la de China se mov&#237;a en sentido contrario, de 0,60 a 0,39. La dependencia de Brasil discurre por otros canales &#8212;las dimensiones productiva y distributiva, el desv&#237;o del excedente que traz&#225;bamos en las notas anteriores de este Substack&#8212; m&#225;s que a trav&#233;s del ensamblaje. La palanca que necesita es otra: no construir una cadena que nunca existi&#243;, sino redinamizar y defender la que existe, detener el retroceso hacia la especializaci&#243;n primaria, y reconstruir la intensidad de la inversi&#243;n y la tecnolog&#237;a que una generaci&#243;n de avanzadas neoliberales dej&#243; que decayera. Pero esto, como mostr&#225;bamos en una nota anterior, requiere el control del excedente a escala nacional. Una periferia tiene que hacer crecer la cadena; la otra tiene que dejar de perderla. Sin embargo, ambas necesitan lo mismo: un Estado capaz de moldear la estructura productiva en contra de la corriente del mercado y de los intereses que se benefician de dejarla tal y como est&#225;.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Figura 5. Dos trampas, dos formas de dependencia.</strong></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Lwpn!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7ef54fd5-cbed-4cf5-a898-2f9eb87085fb_3150x1886.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Lwpn!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7ef54fd5-cbed-4cf5-a898-2f9eb87085fb_3150x1886.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Lwpn!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7ef54fd5-cbed-4cf5-a898-2f9eb87085fb_3150x1886.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Lwpn!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7ef54fd5-cbed-4cf5-a898-2f9eb87085fb_3150x1886.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Lwpn!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7ef54fd5-cbed-4cf5-a898-2f9eb87085fb_3150x1886.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Lwpn!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7ef54fd5-cbed-4cf5-a898-2f9eb87085fb_3150x1886.png" width="3150" height="1886" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/7ef54fd5-cbed-4cf5-a898-2f9eb87085fb_3150x1886.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1886,&quot;width&quot;:3150,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:404133,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/199423803?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5b6373e5-0c49-40eb-9093-cb53e46255a8_3150x2220.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Lwpn!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7ef54fd5-cbed-4cf5-a898-2f9eb87085fb_3150x1886.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Lwpn!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7ef54fd5-cbed-4cf5-a898-2f9eb87085fb_3150x1886.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Lwpn!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7ef54fd5-cbed-4cf5-a898-2f9eb87085fb_3150x1886.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Lwpn!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7ef54fd5-cbed-4cf5-a898-2f9eb87085fb_3150x1886.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;"></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Fuente: elaboraci&#243;n del autor basada en Dependency Lab-Global South Insights.</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Donde la cadena sigue abierta</strong></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Si el argumento se detuviera aqu&#237;, ser&#237;a un consejo de desesperaci&#243;n: los eslabones de alto valor est&#225;n ocupados, la puerta se ha cerrado y la periferia bien podr&#237;a resignarse a exportar bienes primerios. Pero la cadena de las bater&#237;as no ha terminado de consolidarse, y las oportunidades son lo suficientemente concretas como para nombrarlas, lo que convierte la palanca productiva de un eslogan en una estrategia.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Comencemos por lo que est&#225; en juego, porque se trata de una cuesti&#243;n existencial m&#225;s que de una opci&#243;n entre muchas. Gran parte de la semiperiferia construy&#243; su base manufacturera en torno al autom&#243;vil de combusti&#243;n interna &#8212;el sector l&#237;der de la &#250;ltima onda larga&#8212; y a la densa constelaci&#243;n de f&#225;bricas de piezas y de montaje que lo rodeaba. Ese sector se encuentra ahora en declive estructural, mientras que el veh&#237;culo el&#233;ctrico de bater&#237;a, el sector l&#237;der de la pr&#243;xima ola, avanza hacia la cifra de uno de cada cinco coches vendidos en todo el mundo. Haber construido una econom&#237;a manufacturera sobre el n&#250;cleo de la onda anterior, justo cuando llega la siguiente, supone enfrentarse, en el momento de la transici&#243;n, a una cruda elecci&#243;n entre la reconversi&#243;n y la obsolescencia. Quedarse quieto no es neutral. As&#237;, la periferia manufacturera de una era tecnol&#243;gica se convierte en la base industrial abandonada de la siguiente.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Y la cadena tiene fisuras. La concentraci&#243;n es abrumadora en el n&#250;cleo de las celdas para la electromovilidad, pero se diluye hacia los m&#225;rgenes, y es en los m&#225;rgenes donde un Estado con capital modesto y una intenci&#243;n clara puede realmente hacerse con un eslab&#243;n. El almacenamiento estacionario &#8212;bater&#237;as para la red el&#233;ctrica en lugar de para autom&#243;viles el&#233;ctricos&#8212; es el segmento de m&#225;s r&#225;pido crecimiento de todo el mercado, con un aumento de su capacidad global del 77 % en un solo a&#241;o, y es el menos monopolizado: la cuota de China se sit&#250;a m&#225;s cerca del 55% que del 80 o 90 % que domina en otros &#225;mbitos. Funciona de forma abrumadora con tecnolog&#237;a LFP, que no necesita ni cobalto ni n&#237;quel y favorece precisamente a los pa&#237;ses que tienen hierro y litio, y sus umbrales de capital y tolerancia al error se sit&#250;an muy por debajo de los de las celdas para autom&#243;viles. El reciclaje ofrece una segunda v&#237;a de entrada a la cadena: a medida que la primera gran oleada de bater&#237;as llega al final de su vida &#250;til, el material recuperado suministrar&#225; una cuota cada vez mayor de litio, cobalto y grafito que necesita la industria, con m&#225;rgenes reales y una barrera tecnol&#243;gica menor que la de la fabricaci&#243;n primaria, alimentada por un flujo de residuos nacionales en lugar de una factura de importaciones. Y la micromovilidad &#8212;las bicicletas y patinetes el&#233;ctricos que ya saturan el mercado chino&#8212; es un segmento que valdr&#225; unos 360.000 millones de d&#243;lares a finales de la d&#233;cada, fragmentado en lugar de oligopolizado, compatible con LFP y que puede construirse por entre 10 y 50 millones de d&#243;lares por planta, frente a los 1 000 a 3 000 millones que exige una gigaf&#225;brica automovil&#237;stica competitiva.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Figura 6. &#191;D&#243;nde sigue abierta la cadena?</strong></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lwFO!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb85ba81d-c162-429a-ab2f-0864f2cdd1f1_1200x632.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lwFO!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb85ba81d-c162-429a-ab2f-0864f2cdd1f1_1200x632.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lwFO!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb85ba81d-c162-429a-ab2f-0864f2cdd1f1_1200x632.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lwFO!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb85ba81d-c162-429a-ab2f-0864f2cdd1f1_1200x632.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lwFO!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb85ba81d-c162-429a-ab2f-0864f2cdd1f1_1200x632.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lwFO!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb85ba81d-c162-429a-ab2f-0864f2cdd1f1_1200x632.png" width="1200" height="632" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/b85ba81d-c162-429a-ab2f-0864f2cdd1f1_1200x632.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:632,&quot;width&quot;:1200,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:887629,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/199423803?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F542fe8bc-44c4-411b-aac9-a537b1e5146f_1200x896.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lwFO!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb85ba81d-c162-429a-ab2f-0864f2cdd1f1_1200x632.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lwFO!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb85ba81d-c162-429a-ab2f-0864f2cdd1f1_1200x632.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lwFO!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb85ba81d-c162-429a-ab2f-0864f2cdd1f1_1200x632.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lwFO!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb85ba81d-c162-429a-ab2f-0864f2cdd1f1_1200x632.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Fuente: elaboraci&#243;n del autor basada en datos de la IEA, BloombergNEF y McKinsey.</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Nada de esto es una fantas&#237;a de competir de frente con CATL o BYD. La palanca productiva para un Estado perif&#233;rico no es un asalto frontal al n&#250;cleo ya capturado; es la captura disciplinada de los eslabones que a&#250;n est&#225;n integrados de manera incompleta. Refinar su propio litio en lugar de exportar salmuera, afianzar una industria de almacenamiento de LFP basada en su propio hierro y litio, desarrollar capacidad de reciclaje y de micromovilidad, y luego utilizar cada eslab&#243;n capturado como plataforma para alcanzar el siguiente escal&#243;n. Esto es la desvinculaci&#243;n a la inversa, hecha concreta: no una salida de la cadena de bater&#237;as, sino una entrada en ella, en t&#233;rminos que obliguen al valor a quedarse y acumularse en casa.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>M&#225;s que valor: empleo y energ&#237;a</strong></p><p style="text-align: justify;">La captura de valor, por s&#237; sola, es una forma demasiado superficial de plantear el caso y subestima lo que est&#225; en juego. Consideremos primero qu&#233; hace el valor capturado. Los v&#237;nculos de Hirschman son, al fin y al cabo, personas que trabajan. La maquila emplea a montadores y poco m&#225;s; una cadena que se cierra en el pa&#237;s emplea a mineros, refinadores, ingenieros de materiales, t&#233;cnicos de celdas, fabricantes de equipos y recicladores, y a las empresas proveedoras que crecen en torno a cada uno de ellos. Esto es, un trabajo m&#225;s cualificado, mejor remunerado y que se multiplica hacia el exterior a trav&#233;s del resto de la econom&#237;a. El orden de magnitud es revelador: un pa&#237;s en desarrollo que construya genuinamente la cadena podr&#237;a pasar de menos de 10.000 puestos de trabajo t&#233;cnicos especializados en la actualidad a entre 50.000 y 100.000 en 2030, sin contar el empleo indirecto en proveedores y servicios que una industria real genera. La diferencia entre montar bater&#237;as y fabricarlas es, en definitiva, una diferencia en el n&#250;mero de personas a las que da trabajo la industria y en la calidad de ese empleo.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Hay un segundo beneficio que el enfoque impulsado por las exportaciones pasa por alto por completo y que los Planes Quinquenales nunca pierden de vista. En esos planes, la bater&#237;a nunca es simplemente algo que se vende en el extranjero; es la columna vertebral de un sistema energ&#233;tico nacional. El Decimocuarto Plan de China vincula directamente el almacenamiento de energ&#237;a de nuevo tipo a la &#171;absorci&#243;n de energ&#237;a limpia&#187; (&#28165;&#27905;&#33021;&#28304;&#28040;&#32435;) y a la coordinaci&#243;n de &#171;fuente, red, carga y almacenamiento&#187; (&#28304;&#32593;&#33655;&#20648;) como un &#250;nico sistema; el Decimoquinto Plan convierte el almacenamiento de nuevo tipo y las nuevas c&#233;lulas solares en pilares de un &#171;sistema energ&#233;tico de nuevo tipo&#187; (&#26032;&#22411;&#33021;&#28304;&#20307;&#31995;). Comparemos esto con una econom&#237;a perif&#233;rica. La mayor parte del Sur Global sufre un d&#233;ficit cr&#243;nico de importaci&#243;n de energ&#237;a: compra su combustible en el extranjero y paga por ese privilegio con divisas fuertes y una mayor vulnerabilidad externa. Una cadena nacional de energ&#237;as renovables, almacenamiento y electromovilidad ataca ese d&#233;ficit de ra&#237;z; la misma expansi&#243;n que captura valor y genera empleo tambi&#233;n reduce la factura de importaci&#243;n de combustible y la dependencia que la acompa&#241;a. La bater&#237;a es a la vez un objeto de pol&#237;tica industrial y un instrumento de soberan&#237;a energ&#233;tica.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Figura 7. La palanca energ&#233;tica integrada.</strong></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vUPU!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F358428f7-c9ff-4fca-8972-cb8cf3c68f0f_1024x1024.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vUPU!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F358428f7-c9ff-4fca-8972-cb8cf3c68f0f_1024x1024.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vUPU!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F358428f7-c9ff-4fca-8972-cb8cf3c68f0f_1024x1024.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vUPU!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F358428f7-c9ff-4fca-8972-cb8cf3c68f0f_1024x1024.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vUPU!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F358428f7-c9ff-4fca-8972-cb8cf3c68f0f_1024x1024.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vUPU!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F358428f7-c9ff-4fca-8972-cb8cf3c68f0f_1024x1024.png" width="1024" height="1024" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/358428f7-c9ff-4fca-8972-cb8cf3c68f0f_1024x1024.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1024,&quot;width&quot;:1024,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:1504796,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/199423803?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F358428f7-c9ff-4fca-8972-cb8cf3c68f0f_1024x1024.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vUPU!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F358428f7-c9ff-4fca-8972-cb8cf3c68f0f_1024x1024.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vUPU!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F358428f7-c9ff-4fca-8972-cb8cf3c68f0f_1024x1024.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vUPU!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F358428f7-c9ff-4fca-8972-cb8cf3c68f0f_1024x1024.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vUPU!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F358428f7-c9ff-4fca-8972-cb8cf3c68f0f_1024x1024.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Fuente: elaboraci&#243;n del autor con datos de IEA y BloombergNEF, 2024. Marco basado en los planes quinquenales 14.&#186; y 15.&#186; de China.</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Por eso la palanca productiva no puede reducirse a una &#171;modernizaci&#243;n industrial&#187;. Accionada al m&#225;ximo, mueve tres cosas a la vez &#8212;valor, empleo y autonom&#237;a energ&#233;tica&#8212; y cada una refuerza a las dem&#225;s. Esa convergencia es lo que convierte la cadena de bater&#237;as de una pol&#237;tica sectorial en una cuesti&#243;n de desarrollo soberano: es una de las pocas expansiones que, simult&#225;neamente, consolida la estructura productiva, da trabajo a la gente y afloja la correa energ&#233;tica. Lo que no hace m&#225;s que agudizar la cuesti&#243;n pol&#237;tica en torno a la que ha girado esta serie de art&#237;culos. Un rendimiento tan alto tambi&#233;n representa una amenaza para quienes fortalecen su posici&#243;n mediante la fuga de excedentes y los procesos de financiarizaci&#243;n de nuestras econom&#237;as.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>La palanca no se acciona sola</strong></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Lo que nos lleva al meollo pol&#237;tico del asunto y al punto en el que esta nota da paso a la siguiente. Nada de esto ocurre por se&#241;al del mercado. El mercado le indic&#243; al tri&#225;ngulo del litio que exportara salmuera, y as&#237; lo hizo; le indic&#243; a M&#233;xico que ensamblara, y as&#237; lo hizo. Dejada a su suerte, la ventaja comparativa es una m&#225;quina para congelar en la periferia, en los eslabones que ya ocupa. El elegante teorema de Ricardo se lee, desde el reverso, como una sentencia. La cadena solo se cierra cuando un Estado decide hacerlo, pasando por alto las se&#241;ales de los precios, las normas comerciales y a los inversores extranjeros, que preferir&#237;an que se mantuviera abierta.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Aqu&#237; vuelve la idea m&#225;s contundente de Amin, aquella que la econom&#237;a dominante del desarrollo nunca absorber&#225; porque es un an&#225;lisis de clases y no un men&#250; de pol&#237;ticas: la burgues&#237;a compradora no accionar&#225; la palanca. La fracci&#243;n del capital que se beneficia de la exportaci&#243;n del mineral, de la gesti&#243;n de la planta de montaje y de la importaci&#243;n del producto acabado para venderlo con un margen de beneficio depende de que la cadena permanezca abierta para su acumulaci&#243;n. No tiene inter&#233;s en refiner&#237;as, plantas de c&#225;todos ni en la transferencia de tecnolog&#237;a, porque esas cosas amenazan los acuerdos que la hacen rica. Ya sea que hablemos del lenguaje de la tecnocracia neoliberal o del desarrollismo sin an&#225;lisis social y pol&#237;tico, esas estrategias basadas en incentivos y se&#241;ales para estos sectores de clase no conducir&#225;n a una internalizaci&#243;n genuina del circuito productivo desde una perspectiva soberana y emancipadora. Eso requiere una coalici&#243;n diferente, anclada en las fuerzas sociales que tienen algo que ganar con una econom&#237;a nacional m&#225;s s&#243;lida, como parte de un proceso regional, y nada que perder al enfrentarse a quienes la mantienen d&#233;bil.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">As&#237;, la palanca productiva exige dos cosas a la vez: un instrumento y una mano que la accione. El instrumento es la arquitectura de pol&#237;ticas que China ha montado y que la cadena del litio hace legible: controles de capital, inversi&#243;n extranjera condicionada, propiedad p&#250;blica de los eslabones estrat&#233;gicos, cr&#233;dito dirigido y la captura paciente del sector intermedio. La mano es un Estado con la autonom&#237;a y la base de clase necesarias para ejercer esa arquitectura contra los intereses que se enriquecen a costa de la dependencia. El momento de transici&#243;n hegem&#243;nica ha ampliado el espacio para la cooperaci&#243;n Sur-Sur y para la financiaci&#243;n alternativa, y la demanda y la tecnolog&#237;a chinas ofrecen ahora a la periferia materiales de los que carec&#237;an sus predecesores. Pero la multipolaridad ofrece s&#243;lo la oportunidad. El litio seguir&#225; saliendo del salar en forma de salmuera hasta que alguien con el poder de decidir lo contrario lo impida.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Al final, nada de esto se reduce &#250;nicamente al litio. La cadena de bater&#237;as es un ejemplo concreto de la tarea a la que siempre se ha enfrentado la periferia: construir capacidad productiva &#8212;tomar un yacimiento, un cultivo o una plataforma de mano de obra barata y convertirlo en un sistema articulado que retenga el valor que crea y la capacidad de seguir cre&#225;ndolo a escala nacional. Empezamos con un cami&#243;n cargado de salmuera, dejando atr&#225;s la Puna y un valor que nunca regres&#243;; todo el argumento ha girado en torno a lo que se necesita para que ese valor se quede: el paciente cierre la cadena en casa, eslab&#243;n a eslab&#243;n. El litio solo hace que la lecci&#243;n sea legible. La misma pregunta acecha tras el cobre, tras la soja, tras cada materia prima que los tres continentes siguen exportando en bruto y recomprando en forma de producto acabado, y la cuesti&#243;n de qui&#233;n es due&#241;o de la cadena es la de qui&#233;n la construye.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Esta nota solo ha respondido a esa pregunta a medias. Ha trazado la palanca y ha mostrado, en una sola materia prima, d&#243;nde debe aplicarse; lo que no ha resuelto es qui&#233;n la toma. De eso trata la siguiente nota: la capacidad de un Estado &#8212;y de las fuerzas de clase que act&#250;an a trav&#233;s de &#233;l&#8212; para mediar entre la restricci&#243;n estructural y el proyecto de desarrollo, y accionar una palanca que ning&#250;n mercado accionar&#225; jam&#225;s.</p><div><hr></div><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Emiliano L&#243;pez es investigador del CONICET&#8211;Universidad Nacional de La Plata y economista jefe de Tricontinental: Instituto de Investigaci&#243;n Social.</em></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Who Owns the Chain]]></title><description><![CDATA[The Productive Lever of Sovereignty]]></description><link>https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/who-owns-the-chain</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/who-owns-the-chain</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Tricon Political Economy]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Mon, 25 May 2026 09:45:23 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/12b40fc1-4408-4e9a-83e9-6862b04799c9_1024x1024.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>By Emiliano L&#243;pez </p><p>A truckload of lithium carbonate leaves a salar high in the Puna, on the border between Argentina and Chile, where the brine has spent eighteen months evaporating in turquoise ponds the size of small towns. It crosses the Andes, reaches a Pacific port, and sails to China. Some months later, a fraction of that same lithium returns to South America &#8212; not as a raw material but as the cells inside an imported electric car, or as the stationary battery in a solar installation, priced at many multiples of what it left at. The mineral made a round trip. The value did not. It got off the boat in Ningde and never came back.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">This is not a story about a country that failed to build factories. It is a story about who owns the chain &#8212; and it is the productive question that the earlier notes in this series have been circling toward. We argued first that Marxist dependency theory remains the indispensable lens for reading the world economy from the standpoint of the three continents that produce its wealth and keep the least of it. We then showed, through the Baran Ratio, that peripheral bourgeoisies systematically divert economic surplus away from productive investment, and, through the financial leash, how what is not invested escapes as debt service, arbitrage, and capital flight. Each of those notes asked a version of the same question: where does the surplus go? This one asks what follows from it. Suppose a country could keep the surplus and invest it. What should it build &#8212; and why would building the wrong thing leave it just as dependent as before?</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>The high-technology paradox</strong></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Begin with a fact that the textbook story of development cannot accommodate. Mexico and Malaysia export far more high-technology goods than Brazil or Argentina. By every measure the World Bank likes to celebrate &#8212; export sophistication, manufacturing share, integration into global value chains &#8212; they have done what the periphery is told to do. And they are not less dependent on it. They are more.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">In our Structural Dependency Index, Malaysia&#8217;s technological dependency reads 0.87 and Mexico&#8217;s 0.75 &#8212; among the highest scores in the entire sample, which here does not yet include the African economies &#8212; while China sits at 0.39 and South Korea at 0.40, though they ship just as large a share of high technology. The paradox dissolves the moment one stops conflating exporting a technology with producing it. Mexico and Malaysia assemble imported components into finished goods that cross the border stamped &#8220;high-tech.&#8221; The chips, the designs, the patents, the machines that make the machines: all of that value is created elsewhere and merely passes through. The country operates as a workshop inside someone else&#8217;s factory.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Figure 1. The high-technology paradox.</strong></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KKYT!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5a10ad37-c4a2-49bc-8aba-deef4c77201a_936x512.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KKYT!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5a10ad37-c4a2-49bc-8aba-deef4c77201a_936x512.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KKYT!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5a10ad37-c4a2-49bc-8aba-deef4c77201a_936x512.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KKYT!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5a10ad37-c4a2-49bc-8aba-deef4c77201a_936x512.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KKYT!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5a10ad37-c4a2-49bc-8aba-deef4c77201a_936x512.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KKYT!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5a10ad37-c4a2-49bc-8aba-deef4c77201a_936x512.png" width="936" height="512" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/5a10ad37-c4a2-49bc-8aba-deef4c77201a_936x512.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:512,&quot;width&quot;:936,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:76406,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/199165604?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5a10ad37-c4a2-49bc-8aba-deef4c77201a_936x512.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KKYT!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5a10ad37-c4a2-49bc-8aba-deef4c77201a_936x512.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KKYT!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5a10ad37-c4a2-49bc-8aba-deef4c77201a_936x512.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KKYT!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5a10ad37-c4a2-49bc-8aba-deef4c77201a_936x512.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KKYT!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5a10ad37-c4a2-49bc-8aba-deef4c77201a_936x512.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Source: authors from the project database Dependency Lab-Global South Insights.</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Giovanni Arrighi, reading the longue dur&#233;e of the world system, gave this its proper name: the peripheralization of industrial activities. Industrialisation produces the appearance of development while reproducing the substance of subordination. The factories, the jobs, the export figures are all real; what is absent is the chain &#8212; the dense web of suppliers, engineers, and high-value stages that turns a factory into a national productive system rather than a point of transit. The question that decides development, then, is not whether a country industrialised but whether the chain closes inside the national economy or leaks out at every link. There is no clearer place to watch that question answered than in the commodity the world is now fighting over.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Where the value lives</strong></p><p style="text-align: justify;">The lithium-ion battery is no longer a niche in the energy transition. Far from it: the battery market moved more than 235 billion dollars in 2023 and is expanding at 15 to 20 per cent a year, which places it among the largest of the emerging industries &#8212; ahead, in sheer money, of several sectors that command the business press. Electric vehicles alone account for roughly 72 per cent of demand, and one car in five sold on the planet is now electric.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Behind those figures lies something more consequential. The battery is emerging as the leading sector of a new long wave of growth &#8212; the technology, and the cluster of industries it pulls into being, around which a whole phase of accumulation reorganises itself. Kondratiev first charted these long cycles, Schumpeter tied them to surges of innovation, and Ernest Mandel recast the argument in Marxist terms; all of them saw that the economies which master the leading sector tend to dominate the era it defines. For most of the twentieth century, that sector was the automobile, with its oil and its assembly lines, and the industrial hierarchy of the age &#8212; from the United States to Germany, Japan and Korea &#8212; followed the capacity to build cars and the supplier base that supported it. New energy is now producing its successor, and the lithium-ion battery is its most likely core &#8212; the kind of cluster that Carlota Perez calls a techno-economic paradigm and that Arrighi reads as the opening of a systemic cycle. For the periphery, the stakes here are concrete. An economy shut out of the leading sector of a long wave loses the engineering and the supplier base that accumulate around it, and tends to spend the decades that follow importing what it never built the capacity to make.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">There is value to be captured here; the real question is where along the chain it sits, and who holds that part. A battery&#8217;s worth is concentrated in the cell: cells account for roughly 79 per cent of the total, while final assembly of the pack &#8212; the visible, labour-intensive stage that looks most like a factory &#8212; accounts for only about a fifth, and a falling one. Within the cell, the active materials, and the cathode above all, account for between 53 and 61 per cent of the cost. For the periphery, the pattern is unforgiving. The two links it is usually invited to occupy &#8212; extraction at one end, pack assembly at the other &#8212; are the two that create the least value. The midstream, where ore becomes cathode and anode, and both become cells, is where the returns concentrate, and it is the stretch China set out to own.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Follow its share link by link, and a strategy comes into focus that no doctrine of comparative advantage can explain. China holds under 7 per cent of the world&#8217;s lithium reserves and extracts less than a fifth of the raw material; it does not have the resource. But climb from the mineral toward the value and its share rises at every step: lithium-carbonate refining near 65 per cent &#8212; with Chile at 15 and Argentina at 8, which is to say the triangle&#8217;s own brine is refined elsewhere &#8212; cathode materials around 85 per cent, anode materials around 95, electrolytes 80, separators 75, finished cells 83, and more than 80 per cent of world production capacity overall, running at over 300 per cent of its own domestic demand. The spherical graphite used as the anode is refined in China for the world market. This is the footprint not of cheap labour or natural endowment but of a deliberate ascent of the value-dense links of the chain &#8212; weakest where the value is lowest and strongest where it concentrates.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Figure 2. Where the value is and who holds it.</strong></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S5Rv!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F30d2a71d-7b1f-4de9-a7a4-680aa1711383_876x428.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S5Rv!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F30d2a71d-7b1f-4de9-a7a4-680aa1711383_876x428.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S5Rv!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F30d2a71d-7b1f-4de9-a7a4-680aa1711383_876x428.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S5Rv!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F30d2a71d-7b1f-4de9-a7a4-680aa1711383_876x428.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S5Rv!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F30d2a71d-7b1f-4de9-a7a4-680aa1711383_876x428.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S5Rv!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F30d2a71d-7b1f-4de9-a7a4-680aa1711383_876x428.png" width="876" height="428" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/30d2a71d-7b1f-4de9-a7a4-680aa1711383_876x428.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:428,&quot;width&quot;:876,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:55688,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/199165604?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F30d2a71d-7b1f-4de9-a7a4-680aa1711383_876x428.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S5Rv!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F30d2a71d-7b1f-4de9-a7a4-680aa1711383_876x428.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S5Rv!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F30d2a71d-7b1f-4de9-a7a4-680aa1711383_876x428.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S5Rv!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F30d2a71d-7b1f-4de9-a7a4-680aa1711383_876x428.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S5Rv!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F30d2a71d-7b1f-4de9-a7a4-680aa1711383_876x428.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;"></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Source: author&#8217;s elaboration based on BloombergNEF, IEA, Avicenne Energy, and Benchmark Mineral Intelligence (2024).</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;">And the advantage was manufactured, not inherited &#8212; the part that the development consultants cannot absorb. The price of a battery pack fell from 1,391 dollars per kilowatt-hour in 2010 to 131 dollars per kilowatt-hour in 2024, a collapse of more than 90 per cent, driven by scale and a learning rate &#8212; sharpest in cheap, cobalt-free lithium iron phosphate (LFP) chemistry &#8212; that competitors in Korea, the United States, and Europe never matched. China did not discover a comparative advantage in batteries and then exploit it. It chose the sector, directed credit and research into it, tolerated years of overcapacity, and built the advantage until it hardened into a fact the rest of the world now treats as natural, even eternal. The market did not produce this outcome; a sustained political decision did.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Figure 3. A manufactured advantage.</strong></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!56QQ!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F171f98e4-3919-4d4f-b78a-9069880e7580_936x490.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!56QQ!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F171f98e4-3919-4d4f-b78a-9069880e7580_936x490.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!56QQ!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F171f98e4-3919-4d4f-b78a-9069880e7580_936x490.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!56QQ!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F171f98e4-3919-4d4f-b78a-9069880e7580_936x490.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!56QQ!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F171f98e4-3919-4d4f-b78a-9069880e7580_936x490.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!56QQ!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F171f98e4-3919-4d4f-b78a-9069880e7580_936x490.png" width="936" height="490" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/171f98e4-3919-4d4f-b78a-9069880e7580_936x490.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:490,&quot;width&quot;:936,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:70055,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/199165604?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F171f98e4-3919-4d4f-b78a-9069880e7580_936x490.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!56QQ!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F171f98e4-3919-4d4f-b78a-9069880e7580_936x490.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!56QQ!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F171f98e4-3919-4d4f-b78a-9069880e7580_936x490.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!56QQ!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F171f98e4-3919-4d4f-b78a-9069880e7580_936x490.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!56QQ!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F171f98e4-3919-4d4f-b78a-9069880e7580_936x490.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Source: author&#8217;s elaboration based on BloombergNEF and the IEA.</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Set the three findings together, and the round trip of the lithium tells the whole story. The mineral is in the triangle and in other regions (Australia, for instance); the value is in China. The brine evaporates in the salt flats of Atacama and the Puna, ships out as concentrate, and returns &#8212; when it returns at all &#8212; as a finished cell at a price the exporting country could never capture. This is, in its purest form, the productive dimension of dependency within the dynamics of global value chains, and it is worth being precise about why it is dependency rather than misfortune. The lithium triangle does not lack the resource; it sits on roughly half the world&#8217;s supply. It lacks the chain: the refineries, the cathode and electrolyte plants, the gigafactories, the engineers, the supplier firms that feed each stage, the domestic demand that would pull the whole structure into being. Each missing link is a point at which value, employment, learning, and surplus leave the national economy. Extraction without the chain is the twenty-first-century reprise of digging silver from Potos&#237; and watching it sail to Seville. The mineral has changed, but the structure is the same.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Marini&#8217;s unfinished circuit</strong></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Why does this happen, and keep happening, across one commodity after another? Dependency theory answered the question half a century ago, in language sharper than anything the growth economists have produced since. Ruy Mauro Marini described the circuit of capital in a dependent economy as a truncated circuit. In the classic sequence &#8212; money becomes a means of production and labour, which become commodities, which are sold for more money &#8212; the decisive moment is production, the phase in which value is actually created and a national economy either thickens or thins. In a sovereign economy, the circuit closes at home: the surplus generated in production is ploughed back into production, suppliers multiply, capability accumulates, and each turn of the cycle leaves the productive structure denser than before. In a dependent economy, the circuit is broken open and rerouted through the centre. The inputs are imported rather than made, the high-value stages occur abroad, and the surplus generated leaks out &#8212; through profit remittances, through the financial channels mapped in the previous note, and through the simple fact that the most lucrative links are owned and located elsewhere.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Figure 4. The truncated circuit.</strong></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Dni_!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F52b2e028-4bdc-44a2-9fad-60d7e0f2797a_936x582.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Dni_!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F52b2e028-4bdc-44a2-9fad-60d7e0f2797a_936x582.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Dni_!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F52b2e028-4bdc-44a2-9fad-60d7e0f2797a_936x582.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Dni_!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F52b2e028-4bdc-44a2-9fad-60d7e0f2797a_936x582.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Dni_!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F52b2e028-4bdc-44a2-9fad-60d7e0f2797a_936x582.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Dni_!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F52b2e028-4bdc-44a2-9fad-60d7e0f2797a_936x582.png" width="936" height="582" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/52b2e028-4bdc-44a2-9fad-60d7e0f2797a_936x582.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:582,&quot;width&quot;:936,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:911738,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/199165604?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F52b2e028-4bdc-44a2-9fad-60d7e0f2797a_936x582.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Dni_!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F52b2e028-4bdc-44a2-9fad-60d7e0f2797a_936x582.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Dni_!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F52b2e028-4bdc-44a2-9fad-60d7e0f2797a_936x582.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Dni_!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F52b2e028-4bdc-44a2-9fad-60d7e0f2797a_936x582.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Dni_!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F52b2e028-4bdc-44a2-9fad-60d7e0f2797a_936x582.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;">What Albert Hirschman called linkages &#8212; the way one industry, planted in the right soil, calls others into existence upstream and downstream &#8212; fail to form, or form on the far side of the ocean. The economy industrialises in appearance and disarticulates in fact. This is why the productive lever is not, despite what the previous note might have implied, the investment rate. A country can sustain a respectable rate of investment and still be pouring capital into an enclave with no roots in the rest of the economy. The maquila does not suffer from too little investment; it suffers from too few linkages. The lever is the internalisation of the circuit, the investment that builds the missing links, forces the chain to close within national territory, and turns a node of assembly into an articulated system. What a country produces matters less than whether producing it weaves the rest of the economy together.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Delinking, in reverse</strong></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Here, the tradition has to be updated rather than simply repeated. Samir Amin supplied the strategic concept, and the first thing to say about it &#8212; because an earlier note in this series, on multipolarity and autonomy, already had to insist on it &#8212; is that delinking is not autarky. Amin was explicit: it means subordinating external relations to the logic of internal development, reversing the dependent relationship so that the economy faces the world on its own terms instead of organising its entire productive structure around the needs of the centre. It is a change in who sets the priorities, not a retreat behind a wall.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">But Amin theorised delinking in the 1980s, as the Third World project was being dismantled around him, and the concept carried an unavoidable flavour of withdrawal, of stepping out of a hostile world economy. The twenty-first century forces a different reading. China did not delink by stepping out. It delinked by changing the form of its integration, and in doing so, captured the chain that Mexico merely lets pass through. This is delinking in reverse: not less integration, but integration reorganised so that it builds the national economy rather than draining it. The instruments are well documented, and read together they amount to a coherent doctrine &#8212; capital controls, so that the surplus could not simply take flight; technology-transfer requirements imposed on foreign investors as the price of market access; state ownership of the commanding heights, so that the most strategic links were never for sale; patient, directed credit from state banks aimed at the segments the country meant to capture; and a selective, conditioned engagement with global markets in place of the unconditional opening the IMF prescribed for everyone else. Isabella Weber has shown that this conditioning of integration &#8212; rather than its refusal &#8212; lay at the heart of China&#8217;s escape from the shock therapy that flattened so much of the rest of the periphery. Beneath all of it runs the old irony Ha-Joon Chang named: the very instruments the rich countries used to climb are the ones they now forbid to those behind them, kicking away the ladder after themselves.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">And none of it was improvised. It was written down, plan after plan. China&#8217;s Twelfth Five-Year Plan, published in 2011 &#8212; before anyone spoke of Chinese dominance in batteries &#8212; already named new-energy vehicles, new energy, and new materials among the &#8220;strategic emerging industries&#8221; (&#25112;&#30053;&#24615;&#26032;&#20852;&#20135;&#19994;) the state would deliberately build, instructing that the new-energy-vehicle industry &#8220;focus on developing plug-in hybrid and pure-electric vehicles&#8221; and creating dedicated state funds to finance them. Five years later, the Thirteenth Plan sharpened the aim. It set the strategic emerging industries as a target of 15 per cent of GDP and identified, as the technological frontier for new-energy vehicles, the very variable on which the global battery war would later be decided &#8212; battery energy density &#8212; together with the recovery and recycling of used batteries, the &#8220;second chance&#8221; we will return to. The next two plans stopped naming the prize and began fortifying it. The Fourteenth, in 2021, made the chain itself the object, and its language is concrete in the original: it calls to &#8220;supplement and strengthen the chain&#8221; of manufacturing (&#25512;&#36827;&#21046;&#36896;&#19994;&#34917;&#38142;&#24378;&#38142;) and to raise the &#8220;whole-industry-chain competitiveness&#8221; (&#20840;&#20135;&#19994;&#38142;&#31454;&#20105;&#21147;) of new energy and adjacent fields, to build supply chains at once higher in added value and more secure, and to stand up a global early-warning system for the supply of critical resources. The Fifteenth, adopted in March 2026, closes the logic at both ends at once. It opens a dedicated line for &#8220;new-type batteries&#8221; (&#26032;&#22411;&#30005;&#27744;) &#8212; high-capacity electrode materials, high-conductivity electrolytes, composite current collectors, the next chemical frontier of the cell &#8212; under an explicit mandate to raise the &#8220;self-reliance and controllability&#8221; of the industrial chain (&#20135;&#19994;&#38142;&#33258;&#20027;&#21487;&#25511;), and it moves to lock the inputs that feed it: reserves of strategic minerals, an edge in rare earths and rare metals, and, once more, the recycling of spent power batteries. Name it, target it, secure it, push the frontier and lock the inputs: four plans across fifteen years, one unbroken instruction. What Western economists now describe as a comparative advantage that somehow emerged was, on the page and a decade and a half in advance, a decision. Read against the staircase of Figure 2 and the price collapse of Figure 3, the plans are not background. They are the blueprint, and each link China climbed had been named before it was taken.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The lithium chain is a socialist modernisation applied. China did not wait to acquire a comparative advantage in batteries; it used foreign minerals, foreign investment, and foreign demand as the raw materials for a domestic build-out, link by link, until the chain closed within its own borders and the advantage became a fact it had manufactured. Delinking did not mean refusing the lithium triangle&#8217;s resource. It meant ensuring that the triangle&#8217;s lithium was refined, turned into cathodes and cells, and sold at a profit inside China rather than in the country that produced it. The periphery ships out raw minerals and buys back the finished battery; China does the reverse, capturing every stage in between.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Two traps, not one</strong></p><p style="text-align: justify;">It would be easy &#8212; and it is the orthodoxy&#8217;s reflex &#8212; to turn all of this into a morality tale about countries that simply &#8220;failed to industrialise,&#8221; or, in the more sophisticated version, about good institutions and bad. That is the frame Daron Acemoglu and James Robinson made famous: some nations build inclusive institutions and prosper, others fall to extractive ones and stagnate. But the index locates the cause elsewhere. The distance between Mexico and China is not the distance between honest and corrupt institutions; both have run capable, interventionist states. It is a distance in structural position within the chain, and in the political decision to capture that position or let it pass. Institutions matter, but as the instruments of that decision, not as a substitute for it. And the data say something more precise than &#8220;failure,&#8221; because the periphery is caught in not one but two traps, and the two demand different cures.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">There is the assembly-node trap, and Mexico, Malaysia, and Thailand are its clearest cases: high export sophistication, a chain that runs straight through the country and out the other side, technological dependency at the very top of the distribution because the production is real but the value is foreign. The statistical signature is the share of foreign value embodied in their exports: close to a third of the gross value of what Mexico and Malaysia ship abroad was produced elsewhere and merely assembled on their soil, compared with something nearer a sixth for China. These are the economies that look the most modern and rank among the most dependent. The cure here is the lithium cure: capture the value-dense links, condition the investors, build the domestic suppliers, force the chain to root, and so raise the domestic value added in what the country already exports.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Then there is the stagnant-matrix trap, and Brazil is its emblem. Brazil&#8217;s technological dependency is far lower than that of the assembly economies &#8212; 0.40 in 2023, compared with Mexico&#8217;s 0.75 &#8212; because Brazil actually built a relatively complete industrial matrix throughout the twentieth century. It is not a maquila. But the snapshot hides the warning the trajectory makes plain: Brazil&#8217;s score has climbed from 0.25 in the 1990s to 0.40, the matrix slowly hollowing out &#8212; under-invested, low in productivity, reprimarised as soy and iron ore crowd out the more complex sectors &#8212; over the very years China&#8217;s was moving the other way, from 0.60 down to 0.39. The same neighbourhood today, reached from opposite directions. Brazil&#8217;s dependency runs through other channels &#8212; the productive and distributive dimensions, the diversion of surplus the earlier notes traced &#8212; rather than through assembly. The lever it needs is a different one: not building a chain that was never there but re-dynamising and defending one that exists, arresting the slide back toward primary specialisation, rebuilding the investment and technological intensity that a generation of neoliberalism allowed to decay. But this, as an earlier note showed, requires command of the surplus at the national scale. One periphery has to grow the chain; the other has to stop losing it. Yet both need the same thing: a state capable of bending the productive structure against the grain of the market, and against the interests that profit from leaving it as it is.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Figure 5. Two traps, two shapes of dependency.</strong></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!meQQ!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9c1efde7-5e48-44d4-a55e-9d6931639b4b_936x530.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!meQQ!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9c1efde7-5e48-44d4-a55e-9d6931639b4b_936x530.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!meQQ!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9c1efde7-5e48-44d4-a55e-9d6931639b4b_936x530.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!meQQ!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9c1efde7-5e48-44d4-a55e-9d6931639b4b_936x530.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!meQQ!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9c1efde7-5e48-44d4-a55e-9d6931639b4b_936x530.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!meQQ!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9c1efde7-5e48-44d4-a55e-9d6931639b4b_936x530.png" width="936" height="530" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9c1efde7-5e48-44d4-a55e-9d6931639b4b_936x530.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:530,&quot;width&quot;:936,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:83840,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/199165604?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F02bef26d-8270-4aab-bf53-47014070f805_936x530.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!meQQ!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9c1efde7-5e48-44d4-a55e-9d6931639b4b_936x530.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!meQQ!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9c1efde7-5e48-44d4-a55e-9d6931639b4b_936x530.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!meQQ!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9c1efde7-5e48-44d4-a55e-9d6931639b4b_936x530.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!meQQ!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9c1efde7-5e48-44d4-a55e-9d6931639b4b_936x530.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Source: author&#8217;s elaboration based on Dependency Lab-Global South Insights.</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Where the chain is still open</strong></p><p style="text-align: justify;">If the argument stopped here, it would be a counsel of despair: the value-dense links are taken, the door has shut, and the periphery may as well resign itself to shipping concentrate. But the battery chain has not finished hardening, and the openings are concrete enough to name, which is what turns the productive lever from a slogan into a strategy.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Begin with the stakes, because they are existential rather than optional. Much of the semi-periphery built its manufacturing base on the internal-combustion automobile &#8212; the leading sector of the last long wave &#8212; and the dense constellation of parts and assembly plants around it. That sector is now in structural decline as the battery-electric vehicle, the leading sector of the next, climbs toward one car in five sold worldwide. To have built a manufacturing economy on the previous wave&#8217;s core, just as the next one arrives, is to face at the moment of transition a stark choice between reconversion and obsolescence. Standing still is not neutral. It is how the manufacturing periphery of one technological era becomes the stranded industrial base of the following one.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">And the chain has seams. Concentration is overwhelming at the automotive-cell core, but it thins toward the edges, and the edges are where a state with modest capital and clear intent can actually take hold of a link. Stationary storage &#8212; batteries for the grid rather than the car &#8212; is the fastest-growing segment of the entire market, its global capacity leaping 77 per cent in a single year, and it is the least monopolised: China&#8217;s share sits closer to 55 per cent than to the 80 or 90 it commands elsewhere. It runs overwhelmingly on LFP, which needs neither cobalt nor nickel and favours the very countries that have iron and lithium, and its thresholds of capital and tolerance for error fall well below those of automotive cells. Recycling offers a second entry to the chain altogether: as the first great wave of batteries reaches the end of its life, recovered material will supply a rising share of the lithium, cobalt, and graphite the industry needs, at real margins and a lower technological barrier than primary manufacturing, fed by a domestic waste stream rather than an import bill. And micromobility &#8212; the e-bikes and e-scooters already saturating the Chinese market &#8212; is a segment worth some 360 billion dollars by the end of the decade, fragmented rather than oligopolised, LFP-compatible, and buildable at 10 to 50 million dollars a plant against the 1 to 3 billion a competitive automotive gigafactory demands.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Figure 6. Where the chain is still open.</strong></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xNub!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9e7209c9-37ef-412f-9d84-4d6fb89fe155_936x438.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xNub!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9e7209c9-37ef-412f-9d84-4d6fb89fe155_936x438.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xNub!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9e7209c9-37ef-412f-9d84-4d6fb89fe155_936x438.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xNub!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9e7209c9-37ef-412f-9d84-4d6fb89fe155_936x438.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xNub!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9e7209c9-37ef-412f-9d84-4d6fb89fe155_936x438.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xNub!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9e7209c9-37ef-412f-9d84-4d6fb89fe155_936x438.png" width="936" height="438" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9e7209c9-37ef-412f-9d84-4d6fb89fe155_936x438.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:438,&quot;width&quot;:936,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:620688,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/199165604?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9e7209c9-37ef-412f-9d84-4d6fb89fe155_936x438.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xNub!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9e7209c9-37ef-412f-9d84-4d6fb89fe155_936x438.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xNub!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9e7209c9-37ef-412f-9d84-4d6fb89fe155_936x438.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xNub!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9e7209c9-37ef-412f-9d84-4d6fb89fe155_936x438.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xNub!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9e7209c9-37ef-412f-9d84-4d6fb89fe155_936x438.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Source: author&#8217;s elaboration based on IEA, BloombergNEF, McKinsey.</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;">None of this is a fantasy of out-competing CATL head-on. The productive lever for a peripheral state is not a frontal assault on the captured core; it is the disciplined capture of the links where capture is still incomplete &#8212; refining its own lithium instead of shipping out brine, anchoring an LFP storage industry on its own iron and lithium, building recycling and micromobility capacity &#8212; and then using each captured link as the platform from which to reach the next. This is delinking in reverse, made concrete: not an exit from the battery chain but an entry into it on terms that force the value to stay and accumulate at home.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>More than value: jobs and energy</strong></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Value capture, on its own, is too thin a basis for the case and understates what is at stake. Consider first what the captured value does. Hirschman&#8217;s linkages are, in the end, people working. The maquila employs assemblers and little else; a chain that closes at home employs miners, refiners, materials engineers, cell technicians, equipment-builders and recyclers, and the supplier firms that grow around each of them &#8212; work that is more skilled, better paid, and multiplied outward through the rest of the economy. The order of magnitude is telling: a developing country that genuinely builds the chain could move from fewer than 10,000 specialised technical jobs today toward 50,000 to 100,000 by 2030, before counting the indirect employment in suppliers and services that a real industry pulls into being. The difference between assembling batteries and making them is, finally, a difference in how many people the industry puts to work, and how well.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">There is a second return the export-led framing misses entirely, and one the Five-Year Plans never lose sight of. In those plans, the battery is never merely something to sell abroad; it is the backbone of a national energy system. The Fourteenth ties new-type energy storage directly to &#8220;absorbing clean energy&#8221; (&#28165;&#27905;&#33021;&#28304;&#28040;&#32435;) and to coordinating &#8220;source, grid, load, and storage&#8221; (&#28304;&#32593;&#33655;&#20648;) as a single system; the Fifteenth makes new-type storage and new solar cells pillars of a &#8220;new-type energy system&#8221; (&#26032;&#22411;&#33021;&#28304;&#20307;&#31995;). Set that beside a peripheral economy. Most of the Global South runs a chronic energy-import deficit: it buys its fuel abroad and pays for the privilege in hard currency and external vulnerability. A domestic chain of renewables, storage, and electromobility attacks that deficit at the root; the same build-out that captures value and generates employment also shrinks the fuel-import bill and the dependence that accompanies it. The battery is at once an object of industrial policy and an instrument of energy sovereignty.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GVoo!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb1b88e5a-5aa8-4f6b-b84f-dc32ba410049_1200x896.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GVoo!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb1b88e5a-5aa8-4f6b-b84f-dc32ba410049_1200x896.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GVoo!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb1b88e5a-5aa8-4f6b-b84f-dc32ba410049_1200x896.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GVoo!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb1b88e5a-5aa8-4f6b-b84f-dc32ba410049_1200x896.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GVoo!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb1b88e5a-5aa8-4f6b-b84f-dc32ba410049_1200x896.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GVoo!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb1b88e5a-5aa8-4f6b-b84f-dc32ba410049_1200x896.png" width="1200" height="896" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/b1b88e5a-5aa8-4f6b-b84f-dc32ba410049_1200x896.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:896,&quot;width&quot;:1200,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:1483746,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/199165604?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb1b88e5a-5aa8-4f6b-b84f-dc32ba410049_1200x896.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GVoo!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb1b88e5a-5aa8-4f6b-b84f-dc32ba410049_1200x896.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GVoo!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb1b88e5a-5aa8-4f6b-b84f-dc32ba410049_1200x896.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GVoo!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb1b88e5a-5aa8-4f6b-b84f-dc32ba410049_1200x896.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GVoo!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb1b88e5a-5aa8-4f6b-b84f-dc32ba410049_1200x896.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Source: author&#8217;s elaboration. Storage data from the battery-market study (IEA, BloombergNEF, 2024); framing after China&#8217;s 14th&#8211;15th Five-Year Plans.</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;">This is why the productive lever cannot be reduced to &#8220;industrial upgrading.&#8221; Pulled all the way, it moves three things at once &#8212; value, employment, and energy autonomy &#8212; and each reinforces the others. That convergence is what turns the battery chain from a sector policy into a question of sovereign development: it is one of the few build-outs that simultaneously thickens the productive structure, puts people to work, and loosens the energy leash. Which only sharpens the political question this series has been circling. A return that large is also a threat to someone.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>The lever does not pull itself</strong></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Which brings us to the political heart of the matter, and to the point where this note hands off to the next. None of this happens by market signal. The market told the lithium triangle to export brine, and it did; it told Mexico to assemble, and it did. Left to itself, comparative advantage is a machine for freezing the periphery in the link it already occupies. Ricardo&#8217;s elegant theorem reads, from the underside, as a sentence. The chain closes only when a state decides to do so, overriding price signals, trade rules, and foreign investors, who would all prefer it to stay open.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Here, Amin&#8217;s hardest insight returns, the one mainstream development economics will never absorb because it is a class analysis and not a policy menu: the comprador bourgeoisie will not pull the lever. The fraction of capital that profits from exporting the mineral, running the assembly plant, and importing the finished good to sell at a markup depends on the chain staying open for its accumulation. It has no interest in refineries, cathode plants, or technology transfer, because those things threaten the arrangement that makes it rich. Whether it speaks the language of neoliberal technocracy or of national developmentalism, it will not lead to a genuine internalisation of the productive circuit with a sovereign and emancipatory perspective. That requires a different coalition, anchored in the social forces with something to gain from a thicker national economy, as part of a regional process, and nothing to lose from confronting those who keep it thin.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">So the productive lever turns out to demand two things at once: an instrument and a hand to pull it. The instrument is the policy architecture China assembled, and the lithium chain makes legible &#8212; capital controls, conditioned foreign investment, public ownership of the strategic links, directed credit, and the patient capture of the value-dense midstream. The hand is a state with the autonomy and the class base to wield that architecture against the interests that grow fat on dependency. The transitional moment has widened the space for South-South cooperation and for alternative financing, and Chinese demand and technology now offer the periphery materials its predecessors lacked. But multipolarity supplies the opening, not the will. The lithium will keep leaving the salar as brine until someone with the power to decide otherwise decides otherwise.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">None of this, in the end, is only about lithium. The battery chain is a worked example of the task the periphery has always faced: building productive capacity &#8212; taking a deposit, a crop, or a cheap-labour platform and turning it into an articulated system that holds the value it creates, and the capacity to keep creating it, at home. We opened with a truckload of carbonate, leaving the Puna and a value that never came back; the whole argument has been about what it takes for that value to stay: the patient closing of the chain at home, link by link. Lithium only makes the lesson legible. The same question waits behind copper, behind soy, behind every commodity the three continents still ship out raw and buy back finished, and who owns the chain is the question of who builds it.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">This note has answered that question only halfway. It has mapped the lever and shown, in a single commodity, where it must be applied; what it has not settled is who can grasp it. That is the whole of the next one: the capacity of a state &#8212; and of the class forces that work through it &#8212; to mediate between the structural constraint and the developmental project, and to turn a lever no market ever will.</p><div><hr></div><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Emiliano L&#243;pez is a researcher at CONICET&#8211;Universidad Nacional de La Plata and Chief Economist at Tricontinental: Institute for Social Research.</em></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Delinking with Chinese Characteristics]]></title><description><![CDATA[By Shiran Illanperuma]]></description><link>https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/delinking-with-chinese-characteristics</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/delinking-with-chinese-characteristics</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Tricon Political Economy]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sat, 16 May 2026 07:11:42 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/2e5f7ab1-2807-48e5-b052-623c21c39ead_2533x1900.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p style="text-align: justify;">By Shiran Illanperuma</p><p style="text-align: justify;">When China began its Reform and Opening Up process in 1978, scholars debated whether it was a capitulation to Western capital and neoliberal globalization, or part of a long-game to develop China&#8217;s productive forces so as to create the material conditions for economic sovereignty and common prosperity. Only history could bear out the answers to these questions, and only now do we have the data and empirical tools to begin to answer them.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">China&#8217;s reform-era trajectory, from the marketization process that began in 1978 to the ascension to the World Trade Organization in 2001, has been one of the most impactful entries of any major economy into the world market. China went from contributing less than 1% of world trade in 1978 to becoming the world&#8217;s largest trading country. China is now the top trading partner for 120 countries. Over half of the world&#8217;s busiest ports are in China.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">However, this process of trade integration did not turn China into a mere appendage of the economies of the Global North. China retained sovereign control over natural monopolies while increasing domestic value addition and indigenous technological innovation. Today, China leads in 90% of critical technologies tracked by the Australian Strategic Policy Institute. It is the only country with a complete industrial ecosystem &#8211; producing products across every industrial subcategory defined by the United Nations.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">We argue that China has both integrated into the global cycle of accumulation and &#8216;delinked&#8217;, borrowing the concept proposed by the Egyptian Marxist Samir Amin. When Amin proposed the concept of &#8216;delinking&#8217; (<em>d&#233;connexion</em>) as the strategic horizon for peripheral economies, he was careful to specify that delinking was not autarky; it was the subordination of external relations to the imperatives of internal accumulation.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">This is precisely what China has achieved, but that outcome has been contingent on a very specific social settlement and institutional structure within China&#8217;s political economy. We call this &#8216;delinking with Chinese Characteristics&#8217;.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">This article tracks China&#8217;s delinking using the Tricontinental: Institute for Social Research&#8217;s <a href="https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/the-dependency-map-and-mechanisms">Structural Dependency Index</a> (SDI). We then explore the social and institutional settlement that enabled this process by deploying the theory of the &#8216;constructive market&#8217; by Chinese Marxist economists Meng Jie and Zhang Zibin, first translated into English in the international <a href="https://thetricontinental.org/wenhua-zongheng-2025-1-industrial-policy-chinese-characteristics/">edition</a> of <em>Wenhua Zongheng: A Journal of Contemporary Chinese Thought</em>.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>China&#8217;s</strong> <strong>Structural Independence</strong></p><p style="text-align: justify;">The SDI is the first serious data-driven attempt to operationalize dependency theory. It draws on Brazilian Marxist economist Ruy Mauro Marini&#8217;s analysis of the capital-accumulation circuit (M&#8211;C&#8230;P&#8230;C&#8217;&#8211;M&#8217;) in dependent economies and decomposes it into six dimensions: financial (the monetary or M phase), technological and productive (the production or P phase), commercial and distributive (the realisation or M&#8217; phase), and network dependency &#8211; which captures whether an economy occupies a central or appendage node in global value networks. Each dimension is normalized between 0 (maximum autonomy) and 1 (maximum dependency).</p><p style="text-align: justify;">China&#8217;s trajectory on the panel is an outlier in the Global South. Its composite SDI fell from 0.6492 in 1996 to 0.3140 in 2022 &#8211; a 51% reduction, unmatched elsewhere in the sample.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Figure 1. China&#8217;s declining dependencies. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!smYY!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9fa99314-d2f1-48b7-a86b-6efa5ec612b7_1240x904.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!smYY!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9fa99314-d2f1-48b7-a86b-6efa5ec612b7_1240x904.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!smYY!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9fa99314-d2f1-48b7-a86b-6efa5ec612b7_1240x904.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!smYY!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9fa99314-d2f1-48b7-a86b-6efa5ec612b7_1240x904.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!smYY!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9fa99314-d2f1-48b7-a86b-6efa5ec612b7_1240x904.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!smYY!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9fa99314-d2f1-48b7-a86b-6efa5ec612b7_1240x904.png" width="1240" height="904" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9fa99314-d2f1-48b7-a86b-6efa5ec612b7_1240x904.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:904,&quot;width&quot;:1240,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:115904,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/197963495?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F92907df4-91b7-4686-a611-89c532e2fc71_1240x1038.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!smYY!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9fa99314-d2f1-48b7-a86b-6efa5ec612b7_1240x904.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!smYY!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9fa99314-d2f1-48b7-a86b-6efa5ec612b7_1240x904.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!smYY!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9fa99314-d2f1-48b7-a86b-6efa5ec612b7_1240x904.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!smYY!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9fa99314-d2f1-48b7-a86b-6efa5ec612b7_1240x904.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;">The reduction is sharpest in <strong>commercial dependency</strong> (0.253 &#8594; 0.041), which now sits near the measurement floor. China is the world&#8217;s dominant high-technology exporter, with mechanical and electrical products accounting for 58.6% of total exports by 2023.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Meanwhile, <strong>network dependency</strong> collapsed from 0.442 to 0.255 &#8211; this took place mainly after China&#8217;s accession to the World Trade Organization in 2001, which enabled China to become a major trade-network node rather than an appendage. By contrast, <strong>technological dependency</strong> <em>rose</em> between 2001 and 2004 as China deepened its integration into global value chains as an assembly hub. It then fell from 0.543 in 2012 to 0.386 in 2023 as the domestic value addition of production caught up through conscious industrial policies.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">While <strong>productive dependency</strong> fell from 0.716 to 0.413, it remains higher than in South Korea, Japan, or Germany. <strong>Distributive dependency</strong> is the one dimension that has barely moved, from 0.387 in 1996 to 0.363 in 2022. These outliers reflect a historical condition: China&#8217;s gross fixed capital formation &#8211; consistently above 40% of GDP for three decades &#8211; was initially built on wage compression of migrant labor under the <em>hukou</em> system and on assembly positions with thin domestic value capture.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Figure 2. China&#8217;s delinking relative to the Global South (1996-2023)</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VG-g!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F379956c4-1074-4f09-ab87-2cf9c3bdcbde_1240x823.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VG-g!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F379956c4-1074-4f09-ab87-2cf9c3bdcbde_1240x823.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VG-g!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F379956c4-1074-4f09-ab87-2cf9c3bdcbde_1240x823.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VG-g!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F379956c4-1074-4f09-ab87-2cf9c3bdcbde_1240x823.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VG-g!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F379956c4-1074-4f09-ab87-2cf9c3bdcbde_1240x823.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VG-g!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F379956c4-1074-4f09-ab87-2cf9c3bdcbde_1240x823.png" width="1240" height="823" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/379956c4-1074-4f09-ab87-2cf9c3bdcbde_1240x823.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:823,&quot;width&quot;:1240,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:73383,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/197963495?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3cef87a5-f998-4cd5-b7b8-0242a6977c1c_1240x950.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VG-g!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F379956c4-1074-4f09-ab87-2cf9c3bdcbde_1240x823.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VG-g!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F379956c4-1074-4f09-ab87-2cf9c3bdcbde_1240x823.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VG-g!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F379956c4-1074-4f09-ab87-2cf9c3bdcbde_1240x823.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VG-g!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F379956c4-1074-4f09-ab87-2cf9c3bdcbde_1240x823.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;">The contrast with comparators in the Global South sharpens the picture. India&#8217;s SDI sits at 0.562 on a period average (1996&#8211;2023); its highest scores are in the technological and network categories, reflecting a services-led model in which India remains a node in technology chains rather than a technology generator.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">South Korea&#8217;s period-average SDI is 0.390 despite OECD membership and the global presence of companies like Samsung and Hyundai &#8211; corporate scale does not necessarily translate into systemic centrality. South Korea&#8217;s network dependency remains among the highest in the panel because the country produces components for US-led semiconductor and electronics chains without controlling final-market channels.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">What the SDI data shows is that China alone had a unique trajectory of simultaneous, multi-dimensional reduction of dependency at scale and speed. We argue that this result is not just a technical achievement but a result of how thoroughly the social, political, and institutional conditions for autonomous accumulation were assembled in China.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Constructing the Socialist Market</strong></p><p style="text-align: justify;">The SDI quantifies <em>what</em> changed. It does not, on its own face, explain <em>how</em>. Chinese Marxist economist Meng Jie has spent decades conducting primary research across China&#8217;s factories and state institutions to theorize its unique development trajectory. Together with Fudan University economist Zhang Zibin, his theory of the &#8216;constructive market&#8217; is one of the most rigorous analyses of the architecture of China&#8217;s development.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Meng and Zhang&#8217;s distinctive theoretical step is to refuse both the Hayekian account of markets as spontaneously emergent and the Soviet-bloc resolution in which the state replaces the market. The &#8216;market&#8217; in &#8216;constructive market&#8217; is derived not from neoclassical price theory but from Volume II of <em>Capital</em>: the sphere of capital movement, characterized by the <em>unity</em> of production and exchange. The state does not regulate this market from the outside; it participates within it as architect and operator.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The state&#8217;s development strategy introduces a use-value goal into the market, which interacts with the exchange-value objectives pursued by enterprises, placing the former, as Meng and Zhang put it, &#8216;in a relatively dominant position&#8217;. What this means operationally is that the state actively constructs markets on both the supply and demand sides simultaneously, and only in strategic and foundational sectors.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The constructive market is not picking winners within an existing market nor subsidizing private investment after the fact. It is a system in which the state coordinates state-owned producers, targeted credit, technology-transfer requirements, procurement guarantees, consumer subsidies, and regulatory mandates as<em> </em>the prior condition for the market&#8217;s existence.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">China&#8217;s solar photovoltaics, electric vehicles, lithium-ion batteries, and high-speed railway are all results of this constructive market. They are markets that the state constructed before private capital could enter. More importantly, the constructive market prevents the escape of private capital into rentier and speculative &#8216;chokepoints&#8217;.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>The Four Chokepoints</strong></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Meng and Zhang combine Marx&#8217;s circuit with German Marxist Rudolf Hilferding&#8217;s concept of finance capital to produce a formal expression of the state&#8217;s ownership and regulation of the financial sector: M &#8211; {M&#8211;C&#8230;P&#8230;C&#8217;&#8211;M&#8217;} &#8211; M&#8217;. State-owned financial capital enters productive capital with a primary aim other than profit. As they put it, &#8216;the primary goal of state-owned capital is to implement the objectives of socialist production and fulfill the tasks set by the national development plans and strategies&#8217;.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">In this circuit, the state is able to direct M to the targeted sectors and collect M&#8217; in a closed loop that denies private capital the ability to dominate the financial system. State-owned finance capital is the primary chokepoint that prevents private capital from dominating the accumulation process and crystallizing into monopolies &#8211; it also enables a long-term planning horizon.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Figure 3. Modified capital circuits with the state-owned finance capital</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3AyM!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe94cc3d7-c5d1-4ae0-8e75-bc7c185121ef_2040x1230.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3AyM!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe94cc3d7-c5d1-4ae0-8e75-bc7c185121ef_2040x1230.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3AyM!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe94cc3d7-c5d1-4ae0-8e75-bc7c185121ef_2040x1230.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3AyM!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe94cc3d7-c5d1-4ae0-8e75-bc7c185121ef_2040x1230.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3AyM!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe94cc3d7-c5d1-4ae0-8e75-bc7c185121ef_2040x1230.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3AyM!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe94cc3d7-c5d1-4ae0-8e75-bc7c185121ef_2040x1230.png" width="1456" height="878" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3AyM!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe94cc3d7-c5d1-4ae0-8e75-bc7c185121ef_2040x1230.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3AyM!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe94cc3d7-c5d1-4ae0-8e75-bc7c185121ef_2040x1230.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3AyM!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe94cc3d7-c5d1-4ae0-8e75-bc7c185121ef_2040x1230.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3AyM!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe94cc3d7-c5d1-4ae0-8e75-bc7c185121ef_2040x1230.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;">We add that this architecture is supplemented by at least three other institutional chokepoints that prevent capital from dominating the circuit of accumulation and locks it into competition within strategically defined sectors, thereby rapidly developing the productive forces. These three additional chokepoints are land, infrastructure, and strategic commodities.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">In China, urban land is state-owned while rural land remains collectively owned at the village level. This arrangement places a hard cap on capital&#8217;s ability to flee competition in industrial sectors to amass wealth and collect rent.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Along with the land, the infrastructure built upon it &#8211; roads, railways, bridges, ports, power plants, telecommunication &#8211; remains under public control. This infrastructure is governed as a public good, helping keep production and transaction costs down, supporting the real economy, and once again denying private capital a natural monopoly from which to extract rents.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Finally, strategic commodities &#8211; from food grains to hydrocarbons and rare earth minerals &#8211; are predominantly produced, processed, and traded by state-owned entities. This is supplemented by a complex state-owned system of strategic reserves to stabilize prices during shortages and external shocks. Like other chokepoints, this prevents private capital from entering into an arena where it is incentivized to speculate and raise costs at the expense of downstream production.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The four chokepoints of finance, land, infrastructure, and strategic commodities discipline capital&#8217;s exchange-value orientation to the use values set by the state. This is what distinguishes the architecture from &#8216;developmental&#8217; and &#8216;entrepreneurial&#8217; states, where public investment generates <em>private</em> returns while equity stakes and operational control are absent. In the Chinese arrangement, state-owned finance capital retains both. The M &#8211; {M&#8211;C&#8230;P&#8230;C&#8217;&#8211;M&#8217;} &#8211; M&#8217; circuit begins and ends with public capital.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Chinese Delinking in Action</strong></p><p style="text-align: justify;">The US-imposed trade and tech war on China provides a natural experiment to evaluate how China&#8217;s constructive market responds to external pressure. In one of our previous newsletters, we highlighted how the trade war of Trump 2.0 has created a tendency towards <a href="https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/re-compradorisation-the-structural">re-compradorisation</a> in the Global South. We argued that the SDI data for countries such as South Korea, Malaysia, and India essentially foretold the capitulation of their elites in response to the threat posed by access to the US market and technology. But this was not the case with China.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Unlike its regional peers, China has not only withstood US tariffs and export controls but has actively built alternative markets and domestic technological capabilities in their place. To understand why this is significant, it helps to trace the specific pressure China was placed under &#8211; and what it <a href="https://thetricontinental.org/asia/breaking-the-stranglehold-how-china-is-shattering-us-technological-hegemony/">produced</a> in response.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The pressure began in earnest in October 2022, when the administration of US President Joseph Biden launched what former National Security Advisor Jake Sullivan described as a &#8216;small yard, high fence&#8217; semiconductor siege: targeted controls on advanced chips, lithography machines, and chip-design software. Over the following three years, the restrictions expanded steadily, eventually placing more than 700 Chinese firms under the extraterritorial reach of the Foreign Direct Product Rule &#8211; meaning any product made anywhere in the world using US technology could be blocked from reaching Chinese buyers.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">China responded through coordinated mobilization of its constructive market. State-owned finance capital scaled the China Integrated Circuit Industry Investment Fund by $47.5 billion in May 2024, channeling capital into the domestic semiconductor supply chain. Local experimentation across firms such as Semiconductor Manufacturing International Corporation, Naura, Advanced Micro-Fabrication Equipment, and SiCarrier began producing domestic substitutes for the equipment that Chinese foundries could no longer import.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The results have exceeded most outside expectations. In August 2023, Huawei released a smartphone containing a 7nm processor manufactured by SMIC &#8211; a feat widely considered improbable, if not impossible, given the restrictions in place. By late 2024, China&#8217;s mature-node chip capacity had reached 31% of the global total. Then, in December 2025, Reuters confirmed that a domestically assembled extreme ultraviolet (EUV) lithography prototype was operational and undergoing testing, with functional chip production targeted for 2028.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">This is delinking in the sense that Amin meant it: not borders closed against trade, but the institutional capacity to reproduce &#8211; at scale and on demand &#8211; the technology that the imperial core treats as a monopoly.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Development Praxis for the Global South</strong></p><p style="text-align: justify;">The SDI measures delinking from the outside. The constructive market explains it from the inside. Two methods examining the same phenomenon, converging on a single proposition: sovereign industrialization based on autonomous accumulation is, in fact, possible.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Dependency falls when society retains structural authority over capital and subordinates the demands of external extraction to internal accumulation. Where these conditions hold, the SDI falls across all six dimensions at once, as in China. Where any are absent, dependency reproduces itself regardless of who is formally in power. India&#8217;s services-led integration and South Korea&#8217;s component-supplier integration are the comparator cases.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">However, a precondition of China&#8217;s delinking and constructive market was the process set in motion in 1949 &#8211; the dismantling of private, rent-seeking, and comprador forces. This political process is the origin of the chokepoint architecture mentioned earlier. Where that dismantling has not happened &#8211; which is to say, across most of Latin America, Africa, and parts of Asia &#8211; the chokepoints are captured by comprador fractions of the domestic bourgeoisie and converted into instruments of dependency reproduction.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The chokepoints are not technologies that can be lifted out and installed. They are crystallised outcomes of a class struggle that elsewhere remains pending. Any account that reads the Chinese architecture without reading the political condition for its possibility repeats the central error of forty years of developmental-state literature.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The constructive market and chokepoint architecture replaces the question &#8216;what should (or shouldn&#8217;t) be nationalized?&#8217; with a sharper one: where in the accumulation circuit does the surplus get captured, and how can the state retain authority over that node?</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The IMF and World Bank conditionality across the Global South militate against the kinds of policies and institutional structures described above. Privatization and austerity have stripped states of anti-monopoly disciplinary capacity. However, the partial retreat from capital-account liberalization across the Global South &#8211; from Argentina&#8217;s currency controls (2011&#8211;2025) to Russia&#8217;s post-2022 emergency measures to the broader BRICS-plus reflection on alternatives to dollar clearing &#8211; is the most consequential institutional reversal of the neoliberal period. Whether that reversal becomes structural or remains episodic is the question on which the rest hinges.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Capital-account governance is the precondition for the other three chokepoints. Without sovereign authority over cross-border financial flows, the surplus that the chokepoints capture leaks out through portfolio repatriation, transfer pricing, and offshore reinvestment, and disciplinary architectures lose their bite, because monopoly capital can always <a href="https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/the-financial-leash">exit</a>. China&#8217;s SOEs would not have survived the 1997 restructuring had the renminbi been freely convertible.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Of course, we do not say that the &#8216;Chinese model&#8217; has solved development for the Global South. Or that there is an easily replicable and transferable &#8216;Beijing Consensus&#8217;. During China&#8217;s reform process, Deng Xiaoping popularised the Chinese idiom &#8216;crossing the river by feeling the stones&#8217;. Our proposition is that feeling the stones that China crossed to get where it is today can provide us with the contours of what is to be done in other contexts.</p><div><hr></div><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Shiran Illanperuma is a researcher at Tricontinental: Institute for Social Research and a co-editor of the international edition of </em>Wenhua Zongheng: A Journal of Contemporary Chinese Thought<em>. He is a visiting lecturer at the Bandaranaike Center for International Studies.</em></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[La correa financiera]]></title><description><![CDATA[Fuga de capitales, deuda y la mec&#225;nica de la subordinaci&#243;n perif&#233;rica]]></description><link>https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/la-correa-financiera</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/la-correa-financiera</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Tricon Political Economy]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Fri, 24 Apr 2026 07:40:40 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/881cc420-fcea-46de-a21f-843f2c611881_1440x1440.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Emiliano L&#243;pez &#183; Luc&#237;a Converti</p><p style="text-align: justify;">En mayo de 2018, el gobierno argentino recibi&#243; el mayor pr&#233;stamo en la historia del FMI: 57.000 millones de d&#243;lares. En los tres meses siguientes, el peso perdi&#243; el 40% de su valor. El poder adquisitivo de los salarios cay&#243; a un ritmo que los trabajadores argentinos no hab&#237;an visto en m&#225;s de una d&#233;cada. Los fondos de inversi&#243;n que hab&#237;an colocado capital en Argentina durante el boom del carry-trade previo salieron con rentabilidades extraordinarias, aprovechando exactamente la crisis que hab&#237;an contribuido a generar. El FMI lleg&#243; tarde, como siempre. Pero los mercados financieros llegaron a tiempo.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Esta no es una historia sobre la mala gesti&#243;n econ&#243;mica argentina. Es una historia sobre c&#243;mo funciona el sistema financiero global. La volatilidad de las econom&#237;as perif&#233;ricas &#8212;esa inestabilidad permanente que destruye salarios, ahorros y planes de vida de millones de personas en el Sur Global&#8212; no es un defecto que el capital financiero internacional busque corregir. Es una de sus condiciones de rentabilidad. Los inversores globales se endeudan barato en d&#243;lares y colocan ese capital en monedas perif&#233;ricas a tasas mucho m&#225;s altas. Cuanto m&#225;s inestable sea la moneda, mayor ser&#225; la prima de riesgo que justifica. Cuanto mayor sea la prima, m&#225;s alta ser&#225; la ganancia. Desde la perspectiva del capital financiero central, una crisis perif&#233;rica no es un problema sino una oportunidad.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">El primer art&#237;culo de esta serie argumentaba que la teor&#237;a de la dependencia sigue siendo el marco indispensable para entender la econom&#237;a global desde el punto de vista de los tres continentes que producen la riqueza mundial y la retienen menos (L&#243;pez y Barrera Insua, 2026). La segunda demostr&#243;, a trav&#233;s del Ratio Baran, que las burgues&#237;as latinoamericanas desv&#237;an sistem&#225;ticamente el excedente econ&#243;mico de la inversi&#243;n productiva: la periferia subordinada latinoamericana reinvierte en promedio solo el 36% de su excedente en capital fijo, con Argentina en el piso con apenas un 28% &#8212;menos de la mitad de lo que reinvierte Alemania (64%) y muy por debajo del propio Estados Unidos (53%) (L&#243;pez, 2026). Este art&#237;culo plantea la siguiente pregunta: si el excedente no se destina a la acumulaci&#243;n productiva, &#191;hacia d&#243;nde se dirige?</p><p style="text-align: justify;">La respuesta tiene tres destinos que la teor&#237;a de la dependencia ha estudiado t&#237;picamente. Una fracci&#243;n sale como renta financiera al exterior (intereses y utilidades repatriadas, que llamaremos aqu&#237; Canal 2), otra parte se fuga sin registrar hacia plazas financieras del centro (Canal 3), y la mayor parte &#8212;m&#225;s del 50% del excedente en la periferia subordinada&#8212; se disipa internamente en consumo improductivo y financiarizaci&#243;n dom&#233;stica (Canal 4). Pero la correa financiera no solo extrae excedente: tambi&#233;n condiciona la acumulaci&#243;n a escala nacional. La subordinaci&#243;n monetaria interfiere directamente con las perspectivas de acumulaci&#243;n en los espacios nacionales de valor de la propia burgues&#237;a perif&#233;rica. El mecanismo detr&#225;s de esto es la celebrada volatilidad financiera &#8212;expresada en ciclos vertiginosos de precios de bonos soberanos, hipervariabilidad del tipo de cambio y las tasas de inter&#233;s, y precios de bienes primarios hiperfinanciarizados&#8212;. Lo importante es reconocer que esto no es un efecto secundario de la acumulaci&#243;n occidental financiarizada: es, como el propio Alan Greenspan suger&#237;a, la condici&#243;n activa que hace rentable el arbitraje financiero y otorga respiraci&#243;n artificial al proyecto imperialista estadounidense.</p><h2><strong>La transformaci&#243;n posterior a 1970: de la dependencia productiva a la financiera</strong></h2><p style="text-align: justify;">La teor&#237;a cl&#225;sica de la dependencia entend&#237;a la subordinaci&#243;n perif&#233;rica principalmente a trav&#233;s del prisma del intercambio desigual en el comercio y de la superexplotaci&#243;n del trabajo: el deterioro de los t&#233;rminos de intercambio, la especializaci&#243;n en mercanc&#237;as primarias y la brecha tecnol&#243;gica. Estos mecanismos siguen operando y, como argumentamos en art&#237;culos anteriores, siguen siendo sumamente relevantes. Pero algo fundamental cambi&#243; tras el colapso del sistema de Bretton Woods en 1971 y, de forma decisiva, tras la crisis de la deuda de los a&#241;os 80.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">El final de Bretton Woods desat&#243; una ola de desregulaci&#243;n financiera que someti&#243; progresivamente a las econom&#237;as perif&#233;ricas a una nueva forma de disciplina: la del capital superl&#237;quido. Desde este momento, las inversiones extranjeras en los pa&#237;ses del Sur Global ya no se incorporaban como inversiones productivas de forma directa, sino como compra de bonos o t&#237;tulos que prestaban capital efectivo y engrosaban la deuda externa de los pa&#237;ses perif&#233;ricos, o bien buscaban brechas cambiarias o de inter&#233;s para generar bucles financieros de corto y cort&#237;simo plazo. El reciclaje de petrod&#243;lares de la OPEP a trav&#233;s de bancos occidentales &#8212;que inund&#243; a los gobiernos latinoamericanos de pr&#233;stamos en d&#243;lares durante los a&#241;os setenta y ochenta&#8212; fue uno de los ejemplos m&#225;s evidentes.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Cuando la Reserva Federal, a cargo de Paul Volcker, subi&#243; los tipos de inter&#233;s en 1979, esas deudas se volvieron impagables de la noche a la ma&#241;ana, lo que desencaden&#243; la &#8220;d&#233;cada perdida&#8221; y los programas de ajuste estructural que siguieron bajo los designios del FMI. Lo que emergi&#243; de los escombros no fue un retorno a la acumulaci&#243;n productiva, sino un nuevo r&#233;gimen: la financiarizaci&#243;n perif&#233;rica que condujo simult&#225;neamente a la concentraci&#243;n, centralizaci&#243;n y extranjerizaci&#243;n aceleradas del capital en la periferia. Es, en definitiva, un sistema en el que las econom&#237;as del Sur Global se encuentran estructuralmente orientadas a atraer y retener capital extranjero vol&#225;til mediante altos tipos de inter&#233;s, tipos de cambio sobrevalorados y austeridad fiscal, en lugar de desarrollar su propio aparato productivo.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Esto no es una disfunci&#243;n del neoliberalismo. As&#237; es como funciona el capitalismo perif&#233;rico en la etapa abierta en la d&#233;cada de 1970. Y tiene una l&#243;gica precisa: para que el arbitraje financiero sea rentable, el Sur Global debe permanecer inestable. Una econom&#237;a perif&#233;rica con moneda estable, tasas de inter&#233;s bajas y pleno empleo no ofrece el diferencial de rendimientos necesario para atraer al capital especulativo. La correa financiera no solo sujeta al Sur del mundo: requiere que nuestras naciones permanezcan en un estado de tensi&#243;n permanente.</p><h2><strong>La trampa de la volatilidad</strong></h2><p style="text-align: justify;">Antes de examinar los canales de extracci&#243;n del excedente, es importante entender por qu&#233; la volatilidad opera como mecanismo activo y no como falla del sistema. Este fen&#243;meno forma parte de un ciclo autorreforzante: la econom&#237;a perif&#233;rica atrae capital extranjero vol&#225;til a trav&#233;s de altos tipos de inter&#233;s o volatilidad cambiaria; este capital entra en auges y sale en crisis; las salidas desencadenan la depreciaci&#243;n de la moneda, la recesi&#243;n y una mayor fuga de capitales; el Estado responde endureciendo la pol&#237;tica monetaria para atraer el capital de vuelta, lo que profundiza la recesi&#243;n y prepara el terreno para el siguiente ciclo.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Los n&#250;meros cuentan esta historia con claridad. La volatilidad del PIB de Argentina (desviaci&#243;n est&#225;ndar del crecimiento) es del 6,0%, m&#225;s del doble que la de Brasil (2,7%). Argentina experimenta recesiones en el 34% de los a&#241;os de nuestra muestra &#8212;diez episodios entre 1995 y 2023&#8212;. Brasil en un 10%. Chile, pese a tener la mayor fuga de capitales de la regi&#243;n, registra solo un 3,5% de volatilidad del PIB: su Canal 3 opera de forma m&#225;s sistem&#225;tica y silenciosa, no solo en crisis.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">El punto estructural clave es este: la volatilidad no es ex&#243;gena. No est&#225; causada por &#8220;shocks externos&#8221; que afectan a una econom&#237;a sana. Es end&#243;gena al modelo de producci&#243;n y de financiarizaci&#243;n dependiente. La integraci&#243;n de las econom&#237;as dependientes en los mercados financieros globales &#8212;en los t&#233;rminos establecidos por el capital del centro&#8212; produce la inestabilidad que justifica una mayor liberalizaci&#243;n, austeridad y subordinaci&#243;n. Cada crisis profundiza las propias estructuras que la causaron.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Lo que este ciclo rara vez nombra con claridad es qui&#233;n gana en &#233;l. La misma volatilidad que destruye el poder adquisitivo de los trabajadores, erosiona el ahorro de las clases medias y expulsa a millones de la econom&#237;a formal en cada recesi&#243;n &#8212;esa misma volatilidad es exactamente la que hace posible el carry-trade: los inversores se endeudan a tasas cero en d&#243;lares, colocan en monedas locales a tasas del 10-15% y retiran antes de que la depreciaci&#243;n anule las ganancias&#8212;. La inestabilidad perif&#233;rica no precede al arbitraje: es su consecuencia y su condici&#243;n simult&#225;nea.</p><p style="text-align: center;"><strong>Figura 1. El circuito completo de la dependencia financiera</strong></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vrjr!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2b7449b5-5e76-4520-9122-6124f9d4850a_936x534.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vrjr!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2b7449b5-5e76-4520-9122-6124f9d4850a_936x534.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vrjr!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2b7449b5-5e76-4520-9122-6124f9d4850a_936x534.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vrjr!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2b7449b5-5e76-4520-9122-6124f9d4850a_936x534.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vrjr!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2b7449b5-5e76-4520-9122-6124f9d4850a_936x534.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vrjr!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2b7449b5-5e76-4520-9122-6124f9d4850a_936x534.png" width="936" height="534" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/2b7449b5-5e76-4520-9122-6124f9d4850a_936x534.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:534,&quot;width&quot;:936,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:153183,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/195322975?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb82df954-104f-48fa-9b4a-6387cf39b52e_936x576.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vrjr!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2b7449b5-5e76-4520-9122-6124f9d4850a_936x534.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vrjr!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2b7449b5-5e76-4520-9122-6124f9d4850a_936x534.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vrjr!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2b7449b5-5e76-4520-9122-6124f9d4850a_936x534.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vrjr!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2b7449b5-5e76-4520-9122-6124f9d4850a_936x534.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: center;"></p><h2><strong>Renta imperialista en la era de las finanzas</strong></h2><p style="text-align: justify;">Samir Amin argument&#243; que el sistema global extrae una &#8220;renta imperialista&#8221; de la periferia a trav&#233;s del intercambio desigual, una transferencia sistem&#225;tica de valor derivada del diferencial salarial entre el centro y la periferia. En una econom&#237;a financiarizada global, esta renta ha adoptado una nueva forma y un alcance decisivos: el arbitraje financiero. Los inversores globales se endeudan barato en d&#243;lares &#8212;a tipos fijados por la Reserva Federal para las econom&#237;as centrales&#8212; y prestan caro en monedas perif&#233;ricas, benefici&#225;ndose de las diferencias de tipos de inter&#233;s y del riesgo cambiario que genera el propio sistema financiero global jer&#225;rquico. Este es el mercado financiero global funcionando exactamente como fue dise&#241;ado, valorando activos perif&#233;ricos como &#8220;arriesgados&#8221; precisamente porque la periferia ocupa una posici&#243;n subordinada en el sistema, y luego cobrando una prima por esa subordinaci&#243;n.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Musthaq (2021) formaliz&#243; este argumento actualizando la teor&#237;a de Amin: la &#8220;nueva renta imperialista&#8221; en el capitalismo financiarizado no se limita al arbitraje laboral &#8212;el diferencial de salarios entre el centro y la periferia&#8212; sino que incluye tambi&#233;n el arbitraje financiero. Las monedas perif&#233;ricas, al carecer de liquidez internacional suficiente para actuar como reserva de valor global, deben pagar una prima permanente para atraer capital. Esta prima no refleja un riesgo genuino: refleja una posici&#243;n estructural en la pir&#225;mide monetaria. Nuestros datos permiten operacionalizar este argumento a escala de 67 pa&#237;ses. La correlaci&#243;n entre el &#205;ndice de Jerarqu&#237;a Monetaria (CH) y el Ratio Baran &#8212;la fracci&#243;n del excedente que las burgues&#237;as nacionales reinvierten productivamente&#8212; es positiva, con un valor de 0,532, en 67 pa&#237;ses con datos completos. La posici&#243;n de una moneda en la jerarqu&#237;a internacional no solo determina cu&#225;nta renta financiera sale en forma de intereses y utilidades: tambi&#233;n condiciona activamente c&#243;mo la burgues&#237;a local utiliza el propio excedente que se apropia.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">El CH es un &#237;ndice compuesto de cuatro dimensiones: la proporci&#243;n de deuda externa denominada en moneda propia (el inverso del llamado &#8220;pecado original&#8221; de Eichengreen y Hausmann), el peso de la moneda en la cesta de Derechos Especiales de Giro del FMI, el acceso a l&#237;neas de swap con la Reserva Federal y el Banco Central Europeo, y la participaci&#243;n en las reservas globales de divisas seg&#250;n datos del FMI (COFER). Su rango va de 0 (moneda totalmente subordinada, sin poder monetario internacional) a 1 (moneda hegem&#243;nica). Los resultados confirman, de forma agregada, lo que la teor&#237;a de la dependencia ha defendido durante mucho tiempo: el d&#243;lar estadounidense obtiene una puntuaci&#243;n de 0,875; las monedas de la eurozona (incluida Alemania) 0,709; y Jap&#243;n 0,582. Luego, hay un abismo. China, a pesar de su peso productivo, tecnol&#243;gico y comercial en las cadenas globales de suministro, obtiene un valor reducido. Fue reci&#233;n en octubre de 2016 que el Renminbi ingres&#243; a la cesta SDR del FMI con un peso del 10,9%. Antes de esa fecha, el CH de China era pr&#225;cticamente cero: excluido del SDR, sin l&#237;neas de swap con la Fed ni con el BCE, y con el 93% de su deuda p&#250;blica denominada en moneda extranjera. El ingreso al SDR y la participaci&#243;n creciente en reservas globales (2,7% en 2023) elevan su CH a 0,29 en 2023, pero China sigue siendo la &#250;nica gran potencia econ&#243;mica sin acceso a las l&#237;neas swap permanentes de los bancos centrales del centro &#8212;el mecanismo que distingue estructuralmente al d&#243;lar, el euro, el yen y la libra del resto&#8212;. Las principales econom&#237;as de Am&#233;rica Latina caen en el rango de 0,166 a 0,011: Argentina en 0,020, Chile en 0,166, Brasil en 0,143, M&#233;xico en 0,140, Colombia en 0,011 y Per&#250; en 0,018. La diferencia entre el d&#243;lar y el sol peruano no es una diferencia de grado, sino de posici&#243;n estructural en un sistema dise&#241;ado para reproducir la subordinaci&#243;n monetaria.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">La subordinaci&#243;n monetaria produce una extrema volatilidad cambiaria: la correlaci&#243;n entre CH y la volatilidad del tipo de cambio es r = &#8722;0,361 (p &lt; 0,01), lo que confirma que la inestabilidad no es ex&#243;gena al sistema, sino que es generada estructuralmente por la posici&#243;n monetaria. El EMBI+, construido por JP Morgan, act&#250;a como gatillo que, ante cualquier se&#241;al de riesgo, provoca corridas cambiarias en la periferia, lo que afecta fuertemente la estabilidad macroecon&#243;mica.</p><p style="text-align: center;"><strong>Figura 2. El mecanismo de la correa financiera</strong></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5IIZ!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3b3de0a9-875d-4d71-afde-858b4db1782e_936x418.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5IIZ!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3b3de0a9-875d-4d71-afde-858b4db1782e_936x418.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5IIZ!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3b3de0a9-875d-4d71-afde-858b4db1782e_936x418.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5IIZ!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3b3de0a9-875d-4d71-afde-858b4db1782e_936x418.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5IIZ!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3b3de0a9-875d-4d71-afde-858b4db1782e_936x418.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5IIZ!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3b3de0a9-875d-4d71-afde-858b4db1782e_936x418.png" width="936" height="418" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/3b3de0a9-875d-4d71-afde-858b4db1782e_936x418.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:418,&quot;width&quot;:936,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:165498,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/195322975?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fed632cf2-7341-4d87-adfc-7ab5fb78c10e_936x448.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5IIZ!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3b3de0a9-875d-4d71-afde-858b4db1782e_936x418.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5IIZ!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3b3de0a9-875d-4d71-afde-858b4db1782e_936x418.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5IIZ!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3b3de0a9-875d-4d71-afde-858b4db1782e_936x418.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5IIZ!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3b3de0a9-875d-4d71-afde-858b4db1782e_936x418.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: center;">Fuente: elaboraci&#243;n propia con base en datos del Banco Mundial y del FMI.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">El estado perif&#233;rico, lejos de resistirse a esta l&#243;gica, la sostiene activamente. Los bancos centrales mantienen tipos de inter&#233;s altos para atraer capital vol&#225;til y acumulan grandes cantidades de reservas en d&#243;lares &#8212;en su mayor&#237;a letras del Tesoro estadounidense&#8212; por las que apenas obtienen una peque&#241;a rentabilidad, lo que impone enormes costes de oportunidad a la econom&#237;a interna. Realizan operaciones de esterilizaci&#243;n que generan deuda en sus propios balances. Todo esto se justifica en nombre de la &#8220;estabilidad financiera&#8221; y la &#8220;credibilidad monetaria&#8221;, pero en la pr&#225;ctica equivale a una nueva forma de tributo al centro por el privilegio de participar en un mercado financiero global cuyas reglas est&#225;n escritas en otras geograf&#237;as.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Bona y Wainer (2025) han sistematizado estos canales desde la teor&#237;a marxista de la dependencia, delineando de qu&#233; manera la subordinaci&#243;n financiera refuerza cada fase del ciclo de capital dependiente: en la fase D, capitales vol&#225;tiles entran en b&#250;squeda de ganancias a corto plazo; en la fase M, el endeudamiento externo intensifica la superexplotaci&#243;n del trabajo al comprimir el gasto p&#250;blico y los salarios; en la fase D&#8217;, los beneficios se exteriorizan o se disipan internamente. Su an&#225;lisis emp&#237;rico revela dos variedades de financiarizaci&#243;n subordinada: Argentina, atrapada por el &#8220;pecado original&#8221; (75% de su deuda soberana en moneda extranjera) y la dolarizaci&#243;n de sus dep&#243;sitos (27,9%); y Brasil, que super&#243; el pecado original pero a costa de garantizar tasas de inter&#233;s reales de +3,6% durante una d&#233;cada &#8212;el llamado &#8220;retorno del pecado original&#8221;&#8212; restringiendo toda pol&#237;tica redistributiva a trav&#233;s del tr&#237;pode macroecon&#243;mico.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">El &#237;ndice CH asigna a estos dos casos una coordenada precisa en la pir&#225;mide monetaria. El CH de Argentina, de 0,020, y el de Brasil, de 0,143, indican que su dependencia financiera efectiva se amplifica en un 49% y 43% adicionales, respectivamente, una vez que se tiene en cuenta la posici&#243;n de sus monedas en la jerarqu&#237;a monetaria global.</p><h2><strong>La anatom&#237;a del excedente: cuatro canales</strong></h2><p style="text-align: justify;">Para cuantificar la l&#243;gica de la dependencia financiera a escala global, construimos una descomposici&#243;n completa del excedente econ&#243;mico para 67 pa&#237;ses durante el per&#237;odo 1995&#8211;2023. El excedente se orienta a cuatro destinos distintos.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">El primero es la inversi&#243;n productiva, que llamamos aqu&#237; Canal 1. La formaci&#243;n bruta de capital fijo (maquinaria, infraestructura, equipamiento) es el &#250;nico canal que reproduce y ampl&#237;a la base productiva. Como mostramos en Where the Surplus Goes? (L&#243;pez, 2026), el Ratio Baran mide qu&#233; proporci&#243;n del excedente controlado por el capital se reinvierte en el ciclo productivo.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">El Canal 2 es la porci&#243;n destinada a la renta financiera al exterior: los intereses pagados sobre la deuda externa m&#225;s las utilidades y dividendos repatriados por la inversi&#243;n extranjera directa y de portafolio. Es la renta que el capital financiero internacional extrae de la econom&#237;a perif&#233;rica por su posici&#243;n de acreedor y propietario.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">El Canal 3 es la fuga/exportaci&#243;n de capital: flujos no registrados estimados mediante el m&#233;todo de residuo de la Balanza de Pagos (Ndikumana y Boyce). Para la periferia, son salidas no reportadas como IED ni repago de deuda &#8212;una fuga defensiva ante la crisis&#8212;. Para el centro, representa exportaciones netas de capital hacia la periferia: el mismo capital que luego genera el Canal 2 que la periferia repaga.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">El Canal 4 es el residuo dom&#233;stico improductivo: lo que queda del excedente tras los tres canales anteriores. Captura el consumo suntuario de las clases dominantes, la financiarizaci&#243;n dom&#233;stica (cr&#233;dito a hogares para consumo, rentas especulativas internas) y el excedente que simplemente no llega a la inversi&#243;n. Es el &#8220;excedente potencial desperdiciado&#8221; que Paul Baran conceptualiz&#243;.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Lo que muestra la Figura 3 es una gradaci&#243;n que no es lineal, sino estructural: hay posiciones en el sistema global que producen sistem&#225;ticamente patrones distintos de uso del excedente. El centro hegem&#243;nico reinvierte el 57% de su excedente en capital productivo. Las naciones de autonom&#237;a no hegem&#243;nica &#8212;China, Corea del Sur, Malasia&#8212; reinvierten el 61%, superando al propio centro. La semiperiferia disputada cae al 49%, mientras que la periferia subordinada reinvierte solo el 35%. El Canal 4 sigue el patr&#243;n inverso: 8% en el centro, 23% en la autonom&#237;a no hegem&#243;nica, 38% en la semiperiferia, 53% en la periferia. M&#225;s de la mitad del excedente que genera la burgues&#237;a perif&#233;rica latinoamericana no va ni a la inversi&#243;n productiva ni sale como transferencia financiera registrada: se disipa en el circuito interno de consumo suntuario, en la especulaci&#243;n financiera dom&#233;stica y en la renta inmobiliaria.</p><p style="text-align: center;"><strong>Figura 3. Anatom&#237;a del excedente econ&#243;mico. Los cuatro canales en 67 pa&#237;ses</strong></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gGLx!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc6e6f5aa-b209-4da1-93ad-05d9b72fe05d_936x390.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gGLx!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc6e6f5aa-b209-4da1-93ad-05d9b72fe05d_936x390.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gGLx!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc6e6f5aa-b209-4da1-93ad-05d9b72fe05d_936x390.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gGLx!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc6e6f5aa-b209-4da1-93ad-05d9b72fe05d_936x390.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gGLx!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc6e6f5aa-b209-4da1-93ad-05d9b72fe05d_936x390.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gGLx!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc6e6f5aa-b209-4da1-93ad-05d9b72fe05d_936x390.png" width="936" height="390" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/c6e6f5aa-b209-4da1-93ad-05d9b72fe05d_936x390.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:390,&quot;width&quot;:936,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:107024,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/195322975?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc6e6f5aa-b209-4da1-93ad-05d9b72fe05d_936x390.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gGLx!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc6e6f5aa-b209-4da1-93ad-05d9b72fe05d_936x390.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gGLx!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc6e6f5aa-b209-4da1-93ad-05d9b72fe05d_936x390.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gGLx!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc6e6f5aa-b209-4da1-93ad-05d9b72fe05d_936x390.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gGLx!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc6e6f5aa-b209-4da1-93ad-05d9b72fe05d_936x390.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: center;">Fuente: elaboraci&#243;n propia con base en datos del Banco Mundial, de la Penn World Table y del FMI.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Este hallazgo incomoda a las narrativas convencionales sobre el &#8220;subdesarrollo&#8221; &#8212;un punto que desarrollamos en nuestro art&#237;culo previo (L&#243;pez, 2026)&#8212;. La periferia subordinada no carece de excedente: lo genera en cantidades considerables, con tasas de explotaci&#243;n del trabajo significativamente m&#225;s altas que en el centro. El problema no es la escasez sino el destino. Acemoglu y Robinson (2012), por ejemplo, atribuir&#237;an este patr&#243;n a &#8220;instituciones extractivas&#8221; que desincentivar&#237;an la inversi&#243;n productiva: el bajo desarrollo de las fuerzas productivas persistir&#237;a porque las &#233;lites prefieren instituciones que les permiten extraer rentas en lugar de crear riqueza. Pero esta explicaci&#243;n invierte la causalidad. Las instituciones no son la causa de la subordinaci&#243;n financiera perif&#233;rica &#8212;son un s&#237;ntoma de ella&#8212;. La arquitectura financiera global hace que no invertir productivamente sea la decisi&#243;n racional dado el sistema en el que operan estas clases. La burgues&#237;a perif&#233;rica no reinvierte porque no tiene un proyecto nacional de desarrollo. Su inserci&#243;n de clase no requiere el desarrollo del mercado interno ni la expansi&#243;n del aparato productivo. Los activos financieros y los inmuebles en econom&#237;as con inflaci&#243;n cr&#243;nica ofrecen retornos muy superiores y m&#225;s seguros que el capital fijo, y esa l&#243;gica es perfectamente coherente con una clase que acumula integr&#225;ndose a los circuitos financieros globales como socio menor del capital metropolitano. El Canal 4 no es una falla institucional: es el resultado l&#243;gico de una econom&#237;a organizada &#8212;desde afuera y con una estructura de clases heredada de la colonia&#8212; para otra cosa.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">La Figura 4 muestra con claridad que la posici&#243;n en la jerarqu&#237;a monetaria &#8212;capturada por el CH&#8212; se correlaciona con el Canal 4, con r = &#8722;0,697 (p &lt; 0,001). No es una relaci&#243;n directa ni mec&#225;nica. El CH bajo no causa directamente el desperdicio del excedente: lo condiciona a trav&#233;s de la volatilidad. Las monedas subordinadas son estructuralmente inestables; esa inestabilidad acorta los horizontes de planificaci&#243;n empresarial; los horizontes cortos hacen que los activos financieros y especulativos superen en rentabilidad esperada a la inversi&#243;n en capital fijo. El Canal 4 es la dependencia financiera manifest&#225;ndose en el comportamiento cotidiano de la burgues&#237;a perif&#233;rica &#8212;no como conspiraci&#243;n sino como c&#225;lculo racional en un sistema dise&#241;ado para producir exactamente ese resultado&#8212;.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Los datos concretos del Canal 3 confirman y precisan este cuadro. Chile &#8212;el ejemplo emblem&#225;tico del &#233;xito neoliberal en Am&#233;rica Latina&#8212; muestra una fuga media de capitales del 9,1% del PIB durante el per&#237;odo 1995&#8211;2023, la m&#225;s alta de la muestra.&#185; Pero lo que distingue a Chile no es solo la magnitud de la fuga: es la combinaci&#243;n con la mayor tasa de repatriaci&#243;n de utilidades (Canal 2, 4,3% del PIB), que refleja el peso excepcional de la IED en la miner&#237;a. La extracci&#243;n financiera total de Chile &#8212;Canal 2 m&#225;s Canal 3&#8212; supera el 10% de su PIB anual. Ecuador registra 3,6%. Argentina promedia un 2,3% en fuga &#8212;pero con una volatilidad extrema del PIB (6,0%) y diez episodios de recesi&#243;n en 29 a&#241;os&#8212;. Brasil pierde un 0,8% del PIB anual en fuga de capitales.</p><p style="text-align: center;"><strong>Figura 4. La mec&#225;nica de la dependencia financiera: transferencias, jerarqu&#237;a monetaria y disipaci&#243;n del excedente</strong></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pJAq!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7c746ba4-b29a-482d-9006-e75e69f14a1d_936x476.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pJAq!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7c746ba4-b29a-482d-9006-e75e69f14a1d_936x476.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pJAq!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7c746ba4-b29a-482d-9006-e75e69f14a1d_936x476.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pJAq!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7c746ba4-b29a-482d-9006-e75e69f14a1d_936x476.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pJAq!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7c746ba4-b29a-482d-9006-e75e69f14a1d_936x476.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pJAq!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7c746ba4-b29a-482d-9006-e75e69f14a1d_936x476.png" width="936" height="476" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/7c746ba4-b29a-482d-9006-e75e69f14a1d_936x476.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:476,&quot;width&quot;:936,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:99435,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/195322975?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7c746ba4-b29a-482d-9006-e75e69f14a1d_936x476.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pJAq!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7c746ba4-b29a-482d-9006-e75e69f14a1d_936x476.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pJAq!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7c746ba4-b29a-482d-9006-e75e69f14a1d_936x476.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pJAq!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7c746ba4-b29a-482d-9006-e75e69f14a1d_936x476.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pJAq!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7c746ba4-b29a-482d-9006-e75e69f14a1d_936x476.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: center;">Fuente: elaboraci&#243;n propia con base en datos del Banco Mundial, Penn World Table y FMI.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">El Canal 2 en t&#233;rminos absolutos es igualmente revelador. Entre 2015 y 2019, solo siete econom&#237;as latinoamericanas &#8212;Argentina, Brasil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, M&#233;xico y Per&#250;&#8212; transfirieron al exterior en renta financiera (intereses m&#225;s utilidades) un promedio anual de 124.000 millones de d&#243;lares: Brasil 47.700 millones, M&#233;xico 31.900 millones, Argentina 15.400 millones, Per&#250; 9.800 millones, Chile 9.200 millones, Colombia 8.000 millones, Ecuador 2.400 millones. Al mismo tiempo, el Centro hegem&#243;nico recib&#237;a, neto, 433.000 millones de d&#243;lares anuales en renta financiera proveniente del resto del mundo.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">El patr&#243;n que la Figura 5 hace visible no es simplemente &#8220;crisis igual a fuga&#8221;. Es un ciclo de tres fases que se repite con regularidad casi mec&#225;nica. Primero, el capital entra: inversores internacionales se endeudan en d&#243;lares a tasas bajas y colocan en monedas perif&#233;ricas a tasas altas. En Argentina, esto es legible en la zona azul de 2016&#8211;2018; en Chile, en los picos de los ciclos mineros; en Brasil, en los flujos de portafolio de la era Lula. Segundo, el ciclo se invierte: la recesi&#243;n o el sudden stop &#8212;a menudo desencadenado por el propio peso de la deuda acumulada o por un shock externo de tasas&#8212; produce la salida masiva. Los a&#241;os de recesi&#243;n sombreados y los picos de la zona de color coinciden con una sincron&#237;a que no es aleatoria: Argentina 2001&#8211;2002 y 2020, Brasil 2015&#8211;2016, Chile 2009, Colombia y M&#233;xico en los episodios de volatilidad externa. Tercero, el ciclo se reinicia: cuando los activos perif&#233;ricos se han abaratado lo suficiente, el capital vuelve a entrar &#8212;comprando a precio de saldo lo que la crisis depreci&#243;&#8212; y recaptura el diferencial de rentabilidad. La zona azul que sigue a cada pico de salida no es recuperaci&#243;n: es el comienzo del pr&#243;ximo ciclo de extracci&#243;n. No hay anomal&#237;a en este patr&#243;n. Hay un negocio, sostenido por la arquitectura institucional que lo hace posible.</p><p style="text-align: center;"><strong>Figura 5. Ciclos y fuga: seis pa&#237;ses de Am&#233;rica Latina, 1995&#8211;2023</strong></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!1FG2!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F04cbbf8a-5681-4d40-b9ce-4b777f7d9970_936x535.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!1FG2!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F04cbbf8a-5681-4d40-b9ce-4b777f7d9970_936x535.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!1FG2!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F04cbbf8a-5681-4d40-b9ce-4b777f7d9970_936x535.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!1FG2!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F04cbbf8a-5681-4d40-b9ce-4b777f7d9970_936x535.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!1FG2!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F04cbbf8a-5681-4d40-b9ce-4b777f7d9970_936x535.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!1FG2!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F04cbbf8a-5681-4d40-b9ce-4b777f7d9970_936x535.png" width="936" height="535" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/04cbbf8a-5681-4d40-b9ce-4b777f7d9970_936x535.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:535,&quot;width&quot;:936,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:284027,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/195322975?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd1d16d63-efad-440c-89cf-d97982761b17_936x562.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!1FG2!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F04cbbf8a-5681-4d40-b9ce-4b777f7d9970_936x535.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!1FG2!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F04cbbf8a-5681-4d40-b9ce-4b777f7d9970_936x535.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!1FG2!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F04cbbf8a-5681-4d40-b9ce-4b777f7d9970_936x535.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!1FG2!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F04cbbf8a-5681-4d40-b9ce-4b777f7d9970_936x535.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: center;">Fuente: elaboraci&#243;n propia con base en datos del Banco Mundial, del Penn World Table y del FMI.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Esta din&#225;mica no es exclusiva de Am&#233;rica Latina. El trabajo de Ndikumana y Boyce sobre &#193;frica revela la misma l&#243;gica operando a una escala a&#250;n m&#225;s devastadora. Entre 1970 y 2015, treinta pa&#237;ses africanos perdieron un estimado de 1,4 billones de d&#243;lares en fuga de capitales &#8212;cifra que alcanza los 1,8 billones si se incluyen los ingresos por intereses imputados&#8212;, superando con creces el stock de deuda externa de los mismos pa&#237;ses (497.000 millones en 2015) y los 992.000 millones recibidos en ayuda oficial al desarrollo en ese per&#237;odo. &#193;frica no carece de recursos: se la despoja sistem&#225;ticamente de ellos. Solo Nigeria perdi&#243; 340.000 millones de d&#243;lares. La fuga acumulada de la Rep&#250;blica Democr&#225;tica del Congo representa el 706% de su PIB. Son la expresi&#243;n financiera de la misma l&#243;gica compradora que captura el Ratio Baran en la esfera productiva: una clase dominante cuya riqueza no depende del desarrollo de la econom&#237;a nacional, sino de su integraci&#243;n en los circuitos financieros globales como socio menor del capital metropolitano.</p><h2><strong>La trampa de la deuda y el FMI como su ejecutor</strong></h2><p style="text-align: justify;">La fuga de capitales y la deuda externa son dos caras de la misma moneda, lo que Ndikumana y Boyce denominan la &#8220;puerta giratoria&#8221; de las finanzas perif&#233;ricas. Los pa&#237;ses se endeudan a tasas altas y los recursos prestados, en lugar de financiar el desarrollo productivo, facilitan la salida de capitales por parte de &#233;lites nacionales y extranjeras. La deuda permanece; el capital se va.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Nuestros datos confirman la naturaleza estructural de esta din&#225;mica. Entre 1995 y 2023, los pasivos de deuda externa como proporci&#243;n del PIB crecieron de manera sostenida en Am&#233;rica Latina: Chile pas&#243; del 19% al 61%, Ecuador del 34% al 69%, Colombia del 14% al 44%, M&#233;xico del 23% al 34%, Brasil del 11% al 19%. El contraste con los estados que subordinaron los flujos financieros a la acumulaci&#243;n productiva es marcado: China mantuvo su deuda externa entre el 8% y el 15% del PIB en el mismo per&#237;odo; India entre el 16% y el 19%.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">El centro, por su parte, acumul&#243; niveles de deuda externa mucho m&#225;s altos &#8212;Francia pas&#243; del 46% al 232%, el Reino Unido del 109% al 296%, Estados Unidos del 26% al 112%&#8212; sin desencadenar la din&#225;mica de crisis que destruye econom&#237;as perif&#233;ricas en umbrales mucho m&#225;s bajos. Pero este endeudamiento acelerado no debe leerse como se&#241;al de fortaleza. Como argument&#243; Arrighi, el giro hacia las finanzas es el &#8220;oto&#241;o&#8221; de todo ciclo hegem&#243;nico: cuando la potencia dominante ya no puede mantener su dominio mediante la superioridad productiva, recurre a la expansi&#243;n financiera, endeud&#225;ndose contra un futuro que ya no puede garantizar.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">La diferencia entre la deuda del centro y la de la periferia no es solo de magnitud: es cualitativa y tiene ra&#237;ces hist&#243;ricas profundas. El mismo stock de pasivos externos produce efectos cualitativamente peores en Lima que en Frankfurt porque el sol peruano no ofrece refugio ante una crisis, mientras que el euro s&#237; lo hace. Esa asimetr&#237;a monetaria no es un accidente t&#233;cnico &#8212;es la forma contempor&#225;nea de una subordinaci&#243;n que data de la colonizaci&#243;n misma&#8212;. La arquitectura financiera global no cre&#243; la dependencia perif&#233;rica; le dio una nueva forma institucional. Cuando la deuda de Chile se triplica del 19% al 61% del PIB mientras el 9,1% de su econom&#237;a se escapa como fuga de capitales, no estamos ante un &#8220;pa&#237;s en desarrollo poni&#233;ndose al d&#237;a con las finanzas globales&#8221;. Es el &#250;ltimo cap&#237;tulo de una historia de despojo que comenz&#243; con las minas de plata de Potos&#237; y las plantaciones esclavistas de Bah&#237;a. El d&#243;lar sustituy&#243; a la libra, que sustituy&#243; al real espa&#241;ol, pero la direcci&#243;n de la transferencia nunca ha cambiado &#8212;solo el mecanismo: ahora es autom&#225;tico, mediado por diferencias de tasas y calificaciones crediticias en lugar de ca&#241;oneros y virreyes&#8212;.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">El papel del FMI en este ciclo merece la mayor atenci&#243;n: es el garante institucional de la din&#225;mica que describimos. Los pr&#233;stamos se conceden bajo la condici&#243;n de austeridad fiscal, liberalizaci&#243;n comercial, apertura de cuentas de capital y privatizaci&#243;n de activos. La apertura de la cuenta de capital &#8212;presentada como condici&#243;n t&#233;cnica de &#8220;modernizaci&#243;n financiera&#8221;&#8212; es en realidad la condici&#243;n sine qua non que mantiene abierto el canal a trav&#233;s del cual el diferencial de tasas se convierte en rentabilidad para el capital financiero central: sin ella, el carry no funciona, los flujos vol&#225;tiles no entran ni salen, y la volatilidad que los alimenta se disipa. El Fondo no solo ejecuta el orden financiero: lo reproduce.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Argentina es el caso de manual: el mayor pr&#233;stamo en la historia del FMI (57.000 millones de d&#243;lares, 2018) financi&#243; la fuga de capitales en tiempo real &#8212;los d&#243;lares desembolsados sal&#237;an del pa&#237;s a trav&#233;s de la cuenta financiera en cuesti&#243;n de meses&#8212;. El patr&#243;n es general: desde los programas de ajuste impuestos al &#193;frica subsahariana en los a&#241;os 80 y 90 &#8212;que coincidieron con los per&#237;odos m&#225;s intensos de fuga documentados por Ndikumana y Boyce&#8212; hasta las condicionalidades en Ecuador y los reg&#237;menes de austeridad impuestos al sur de Europa tras 2010, el Fondo ha actuado sistem&#225;ticamente como el ejecutor de un orden financiero que transfiere recursos de la periferia al centro, presentando esa transferencia como &#8220;estabilizaci&#243;n&#8221;.</p><h2><strong>Cerrando el c&#237;rculo</strong></h2><p style="text-align: justify;">Las tres notas de esta serie forman ahora un argumento completo. La teor&#237;a de la dependencia proporciona el marco estructural: las econom&#237;as perif&#233;ricas est&#225;n subordinadas mediante una combinaci&#243;n de mecanismos productivos, comerciales, financieros, tecnol&#243;gicos y de redes que operan simult&#225;neamente. El Ratio Baran muestra que las burgues&#237;as perif&#233;ricas &#8212;especialmente en Am&#233;rica Latina&#8212; sistem&#225;ticamente subinvierten el excedente en capital productivo: un promedio regional del 36% y casos extremos como Argentina (28%) y Per&#250; (33%) que expresan la l&#243;gica compradora en su forma m&#225;s acabada. Y la descomposici&#243;n de los cuatro canales muestra con precisi&#243;n hacia d&#243;nde va el excedente desviado: entre el 4% y el 6% como renta financiera al exterior [C2], alrededor del 6% como fuga [C3], y el 53% como residuo interno improductivo [C4].</p><p style="text-align: justify;">La burgues&#237;a perif&#233;rica no invierte productivamente en parte porque el horizonte de rentabilidad de los activos financieros &#8212;facilitado precisamente por la inestabilidad cambiaria y las altas tasas de inter&#233;s&#8212; supera al de la inversi&#243;n en capital fijo. El capital financiero del centro extrae renta precisamente porque esa inestabilidad existe y se reproduce. Y la arquitectura institucional &#8212;desde el FMI hasta las agencias de calificaci&#243;n que conforman el EMBI+&#8212; garantiza que as&#237; sea. Nadie con poder real sobre el sistema tiene incentivos para estabilizarlo. La estabilidad no es el equilibrio al que tiende el capitalismo financiarizado perif&#233;rico: es exactamente lo que disuelve su mecanismo de extracci&#243;n.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Lejos de ser una pol&#237;tica fallida, esta es una estrategia de clase que opera mediante una arquitectura financiera que la recompensa. Y no se revertir&#225; &#8220;mejorando el clima empresarial&#8221; ni &#8220;atrayendo inversi&#243;n extranjera&#8221;. Solo ser&#225; revertida por la misma fuerza pol&#237;tica que lo revirti&#243; en Asia oriental: la capacidad de los movimientos nacional-populares para desarrollar, desde las esferas estatales y m&#225;s all&#225; de ellas, controles sobre el capital, dirigir el cr&#233;dito hacia la acumulaci&#243;n productiva y subordinar el capital nacional y extranjero a un proyecto soberano de desarrollo.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">En un mundo en crisis, donde la hegemon&#237;a del d&#243;lar se encuentra en retroceso y nuevas arquitecturas financieras alternativas est&#225;n surgiendo, las condiciones para romper la correa financiera son m&#225;s favorables que en cualquier otro momento desde la d&#233;cada de 1970. Para cortar las correas, deben invertirse las prioridades: las condiciones materiales de vida de los pueblos del sur no pueden resolverse con lo que queda como saldo luego de los pagos al exterior en forma de rentas, intereses y fuga. Un proyecto soberano de desarrollo debe centrarse en romper los circuitos viciosos del capital financiero global &#8212;y eso requiere disputar los mecanismos institucionales que los reproducen&#8212;.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Emiliano L&#243;pez es investigador en el CONICET-Universidad Nacional de La Plata y economista jefe del Instituto Tricontinental de Investigaci&#243;n Social.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Luc&#237;a Converti es economista de la Universidad de Buenos Aires e investigadora del Instituto Tricontinental de Investigaci&#243;n Social.</p><h2><strong>Referencias</strong></h2><p style="text-align: justify;">Acemoglu, D., &amp; Robinson, J. A. (2012). Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity, and Poverty. Crown Publishers, Nueva York.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Amin, S. (1976). Unequal Development. Monthly Review Press.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Arrighi, G. (1994). The Long Twentieth Century. Verso.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Bona, L. y Wainer, A. (2025). La l&#243;gica financiera de la dependencia. Elementos te&#243;ricos y una breve aplicaci&#243;n para caracterizar los casos de Argentina y Brasil. Revista Econom&#237;a, 77(126), 27&#8211;47.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Eichengreen, B. y Hausmann, R. (1999). Exchange rates and financial fragility. NBER Working Paper 7418.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Lane, P. R. y Milesi-Ferretti, G. M. (2007). The external wealth of nations mark II. Journal of International Economics, 73(2), 223&#8211;250.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">L&#243;pez, E. (2026, 19 de marzo). Where Does the Surplus Go? Peripheral Bourgeoisies and the Politics of Disinvestment. Tricontinental Political Economy [Substack]. https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/where-does-the-surplus-go</p><p style="text-align: justify;">L&#243;pez, E. y Barrera Insua, F. (2026, 5 de marzo). The Dependency Map and Mechanisms That Transcend National Borders. Tricontinental Political Economy [Substack]. https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/the-dependency-map-and-mechanisms</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Musthaq, F. (2021). Dependency in a financialised global economy. Review of African Political Economy, 48(167), 15&#8211;31.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Ndikumana, L. y Boyce, J. K. (2018). Capital flight from Africa: updated methodology and new estimates. Political Economy Research Institute Working Paper 469. University of Massachusetts-Amherst.</p><h2><strong>Nota metodol&#243;gica</strong></h2><p><strong>Fuentes de datos</strong></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Te3e!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fab9ec41a-3884-4aad-ba23-a2589e91579f_936x484.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Te3e!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fab9ec41a-3884-4aad-ba23-a2589e91579f_936x484.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Te3e!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fab9ec41a-3884-4aad-ba23-a2589e91579f_936x484.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Te3e!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fab9ec41a-3884-4aad-ba23-a2589e91579f_936x484.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Te3e!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fab9ec41a-3884-4aad-ba23-a2589e91579f_936x484.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Te3e!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fab9ec41a-3884-4aad-ba23-a2589e91579f_936x484.png" width="936" height="484" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/ab9ec41a-3884-4aad-ba23-a2589e91579f_936x484.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:484,&quot;width&quot;:936,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:106256,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/195322975?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fab9ec41a-3884-4aad-ba23-a2589e91579f_936x484.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Te3e!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fab9ec41a-3884-4aad-ba23-a2589e91579f_936x484.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Te3e!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fab9ec41a-3884-4aad-ba23-a2589e91579f_936x484.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Te3e!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fab9ec41a-3884-4aad-ba23-a2589e91579f_936x484.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Te3e!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fab9ec41a-3884-4aad-ba23-a2589e91579f_936x484.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>&#185; </strong>El promedio del 9,1% corresponde a los a&#241;os con estimaci&#243;n disponible del m&#233;todo residual de BoP. El promedio incluyendo a&#241;os sin estimaci&#243;n es 6,2% del PIB. La diferencia refleja limitaciones de cobertura del m&#233;todo, no ausencia real de fuga en esos a&#241;os.</p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[The Financial Leash]]></title><description><![CDATA[Capital Flight, Debt, and the Mechanics of Peripheral Subordination]]></description><link>https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/the-financial-leash</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/the-financial-leash</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Tricon Political Economy]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Thu, 16 Apr 2026 14:50:35 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/7ca3b52f-f2d5-4017-8a65-9ca2990a6ce1_1440x1440.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Emiliano L&#243;pez </p><p>Luc&#237;a Converti </p><div><hr></div><p><br>In May 2018, the Argentine government received the largest loan in IMF history: $57 billion. In the three months that followed, the peso lost 40% of its value. The purchasing power of wages fell at a pace Argentine workers had not seen in over a decade. The investment funds that had placed capital in Argentina during the preceding carry-trade boom exited with extraordinary returns, capitalizing on the very crisis they had helped generate. The IMF arrived late, as always. But the financial markets arrived on time.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">This is not a story about Argentine economic mismanagement. It is a story about how the global financial system works. The volatility of peripheral economies &#8212; that permanent instability that destroys the wages, savings, and life plans of millions across the Global South &#8212; is not a defect that international financial capital seeks to correct. It is one of its conditions of profitability. Global investors borrow cheaply in dollars and place that capital in peripheral currencies at much higher rates. The more unstable the currency, the higher the risk premium it justifies. The higher the premium, the greater the profit. From the perspective of central financial capital, a peripheral crisis is not a problem but an opportunity.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The first article in this series argued that dependency theory remains the indispensable framework for understanding the global economy from the standpoint of the three continents that produce the world&#8217;s wealth and retain the least of it (L&#243;pez and Barrera Insua, 2026). The second demonstrated, through the Baran Ratio, that Latin American bourgeoisies systematically divert the economic surplus away from productive investment: the subordinate Latin American periphery reinvests on average only 36% of its surplus in fixed capital, with Argentina at the floor at just 28%, less than half of what Germany reinvests (64%) and well below the United States itself (53%) (L&#243;pez, 2026). This article poses the next question: if the surplus is not directed toward productive accumulation, where does it go?</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The answer has three destinations that dependency theory has typically studied. A fraction flows out as financial rent abroad (interest payments and repatriated profits, which we call Channel 2 here), another portion flees unrecorded toward financial centers of the core (Channel 3), and the largest share &#8212; more than 50% of the surplus in the subordinate periphery &#8212; dissipates internally in unproductive consumption and domestic financialization (Channel 4). But the financial leash does not only extract surplus: it also conditions accumulation at the national scale. Monetary subordination directly interferes with the prospects for accumulation within the national value spaces of the peripheral bourgeoisie itself. The mechanism behind this is the celebrated financial volatility. It is expressed in vertiginous cycles of sovereign bond prices, extreme variability of exchange rates and interest rates, and hyper-financialized commodity prices, among other dimensions. What matters is recognizing that this is not a side effect of Western financialized accumulation: it is, as Alan Greenspan himself suggested, the active condition that makes financial arbitrage profitable and provides artificial respiration to the US imperialist project.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>The Post-1970 Transformation: From Productive to Financial Dependency</strong></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Classical dependency theory understood peripheral subordination primarily through the lens of unequal exchange in trade and the super-exploitation of labor: deteriorating terms of trade, primary commodity specialization, and the technological gap. These mechanisms continue to operate and, as we argued in previous articles, remain highly relevant. But something fundamental changed after the collapse of the Bretton Woods system in 1971 and, decisively, after the debt crisis of the 1980s.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The end of Bretton Woods unleashed a wave of financial deregulation that progressively subjected peripheral economies to a new form of discipline: that of super-liquid capital. From this moment on, foreign investment in Global South countries no longer entered primarily as direct productive investment, but as purchases of bonds or other securities that provided effective capital and swelled the external debt of peripheral countries, or as attempts to exploit exchange rate and interest rate gaps to generate short- and ultra-short-term financial loops. The recycling of OPEC petrodollars through Western banks &#8212; which flooded Latin American governments with dollar-denominated loans during the 1970s and 1980s &#8212; was one of the most visible examples.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">When the Federal Reserve, under Paul Volcker, raised interest rates in 1979, those debts became unpayable overnight, triggering the &#8220;lost decade&#8221; and the structural adjustment programs that followed under IMF direction. What emerged from the rubble was not a return to productive accumulation, but a new regime: peripheral financialization that simultaneously drove the accelerated concentration, centralization, and foreign ownership of capital in the periphery. It is, in short, a system in which Global South economies are structurally oriented toward attracting and retaining volatile foreign capital through high interest rates, overvalued exchange rates, and fiscal austerity, rather than developing their own productive apparatus.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">This is not a dysfunction of neoliberalism. This is how peripheral capitalism functions in the era opened in the 1970s. And it has a precise logic: for financial arbitrage to be profitable, the Global South must remain unstable. A peripheral economy with a stable currency, low interest rates, and full employment does not offer the yield differential needed to attract speculative capital. The financial leash not only holds down the Global South, but also requires our nations to remain in a state of permanent tension.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>The Volatility Trap</strong></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Before examining the channels of surplus extraction, it is important to understand why volatility operates as an active mechanism rather than a system failure. This phenomenon is part of a self-reinforcing cycle: the peripheral economy attracts volatile foreign capital through high interest rates or currency volatility; this capital enters in booms and exits in crises; the exits trigger currency depreciation, recession, and further capital flight; the state responds by tightening monetary policy to attract capital back, which deepens the recession and sets the stage for the next cycle.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The numbers tell this story clearly. Argentina&#8217;s GDP volatility (standard deviation of growth) is 6.0%, more than double Brazil&#8217;s (2.7%). Argentina experiences recessions in 34% of the years in our sample &#8212; ten episodes between 1995 and 2023. Brazil in 10%. Chile, despite having the region&#8217;s largest capital flight, records only 3.5% GDP volatility: its Channel 3 operates more systematically and quietly, not only during crises.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The key structural point is this: volatility is not exogenous. It is not caused by &#8220;external shocks&#8221; affecting an otherwise healthy economy. It is endogenous to the dependent model of production and financialization. The integration of dependent economies into global financial markets &#8212; on terms set by core capital &#8212; produces the instability that justifies further liberalization, austerity, and subordination. Each crisis deepens the very structures that caused it.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">What this cycle rarely names clearly is who wins. The same volatility that destroys workers&#8217; purchasing power, erodes middle-class savings, and expels millions from the formal economy in each recession, that same volatility is precisely what makes carry-trade possible: investors borrow at zero rates in dollars, place in local currencies at 10-15% rates, and exit before depreciation erases the gains. Peripheral instability does not precede arbitrage: it is its consequence and its simultaneous condition.<br><br><strong>Figure 1. The complete financial dependency circuit</strong></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!uv_s!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc26a4d3e-3bca-4841-bd4f-be8ea6a0f3fe_4470x2742.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!uv_s!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc26a4d3e-3bca-4841-bd4f-be8ea6a0f3fe_4470x2742.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!uv_s!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc26a4d3e-3bca-4841-bd4f-be8ea6a0f3fe_4470x2742.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!uv_s!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc26a4d3e-3bca-4841-bd4f-be8ea6a0f3fe_4470x2742.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!uv_s!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc26a4d3e-3bca-4841-bd4f-be8ea6a0f3fe_4470x2742.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!uv_s!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc26a4d3e-3bca-4841-bd4f-be8ea6a0f3fe_4470x2742.png" width="4470" height="2742" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/c26a4d3e-3bca-4841-bd4f-be8ea6a0f3fe_4470x2742.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:2742,&quot;width&quot;:4470,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:819652,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/194384432?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F16e15b6c-1e3d-4680-9e60-d2e3ee49388d_4470x2965.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!uv_s!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc26a4d3e-3bca-4841-bd4f-be8ea6a0f3fe_4470x2742.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!uv_s!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc26a4d3e-3bca-4841-bd4f-be8ea6a0f3fe_4470x2742.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!uv_s!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc26a4d3e-3bca-4841-bd4f-be8ea6a0f3fe_4470x2742.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!uv_s!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc26a4d3e-3bca-4841-bd4f-be8ea6a0f3fe_4470x2742.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Imperialist Rent in the Age of Finance</strong></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Samir Amin has argued that the global system extracts an &#8220;imperialist rent&#8221; from the periphery through unequal exchange, a systematic transfer of value arising from the wage differential between the core and the periphery. In a globally financialized economy, this rent has taken on a new and decisive form: financial arbitrage. Global investors borrow cheaply in dollars &#8212; at rates set by the Federal Reserve for core economies &#8212; and lend expensively in peripheral currencies, benefiting from interest rate differentials and exchange rate risk generated by the hierarchical global financial system itself. This is the global financial market functioning exactly as designed, pricing peripheral assets as &#8220;risky&#8221; precisely because the periphery occupies a subordinate position in the system, and then extracting a premium for that subordination.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Musthaq (2021) formalized this argument by updating Amin&#8217;s theory: the &#8220;new imperialist rent&#8221; in financialized capitalism is not limited to labor arbitrage &#8212; the wage differential between the core and the periphery &#8212; but also includes financial arbitrage. Peripheral currencies, lacking sufficient international liquidity to function as a global store of value, must pay a permanent premium to attract capital. This premium does not reflect genuine risk: it reflects a structural position in the monetary pyramid. Our data allow us to operationalize this argument across 67 countries. The correlation between the Currency Hierarchy Index (CH) and the Baran Ratio &#8212; the fraction of surplus that national bourgeoisies reinvest productively &#8212; is positive, with a value of 0.532, across 67 countries with complete data. A currency&#8217;s position in the international hierarchy not only determines how much financial rent flows out as interest and profits, but it also actively conditions how the local bourgeoisie uses the very surplus it appropriates.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The Currency Hierarchy is a composite index of four dimensions: the share of external debt denominated in domestic currency (the inverse of Eichengreen and Hausmann&#8217;s &#8220;original sin&#8221;), the currency&#8217;s weight in the IMF&#8217;s Special Drawing Rights basket, access to swap lines with the Federal Reserve and the European Central Bank, and participation in global foreign exchange reserves according to IMF COFER data. Its range runs from 0 (fully subordinate currency, with no international monetary power) to 1 (hegemonic currency). The results, in aggregate, confirm what dependency theory has long argued: the US dollar scores 0.875; eurozone currencies (including Germany) 0.709; Japan 0.582. Then comes an abyss. China, despite its productive, technological, and commercial weight in global supply chains, scores very low. It was only in October 2016 that the renminbi joined the IMF&#8217;s SDR basket with a weight of 10.9%. Before that date, China&#8217;s CH was practically zero: excluded from the SDR, without swap lines with the Fed or the ECB, and with 93% of its public debt denominated in foreign currency. Its entry into the SDR and growing participation in global reserves (2.7% in 2023) raise its CH to 0.29 in 2023, but China remains the only major economic power without access to permanent swap lines from core central banks &#8212; the mechanism that structurally distinguishes the dollar, euro, yen, and pound from everything else. Latin America&#8217;s major economies fall in the range of 0.166 to 0.011: Argentina at 0.020, Chile at 0.166, Brazil at 0.143, Mexico at 0.140, Colombia at 0.011, and Peru at 0.018. The difference between the dollar and the Peruvian sol is not a difference of degree but of structural position in a system designed to reproduce monetary subordination.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Monetary subordination produces extreme exchange rate volatility: the correlation between CH and exchange rate volatility is r = &#8722;0.361 (p &lt; 0.01), confirming that instability is not exogenous to the system but structurally generated by monetary position. The EMBI+, built by JP Morgan, acts as a trigger that, at any sign of risk, provokes currency runs in the periphery, severely impacting macroeconomic stability.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Figure 2. The financial leash mechanism</strong></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jcKL!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff9ebf769-05a8-4230-af1f-2e1f823f986f_4453x2111.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jcKL!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff9ebf769-05a8-4230-af1f-2e1f823f986f_4453x2111.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jcKL!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff9ebf769-05a8-4230-af1f-2e1f823f986f_4453x2111.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jcKL!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff9ebf769-05a8-4230-af1f-2e1f823f986f_4453x2111.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jcKL!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff9ebf769-05a8-4230-af1f-2e1f823f986f_4453x2111.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jcKL!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff9ebf769-05a8-4230-af1f-2e1f823f986f_4453x2111.png" width="4453" height="2111" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/f9ebf769-05a8-4230-af1f-2e1f823f986f_4453x2111.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:2111,&quot;width&quot;:4453,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:996439,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/194384432?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0f7a342b-9984-4d73-a534-334acd230554_4453x2263.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jcKL!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff9ebf769-05a8-4230-af1f-2e1f823f986f_4453x2111.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jcKL!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff9ebf769-05a8-4230-af1f-2e1f823f986f_4453x2111.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jcKL!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff9ebf769-05a8-4230-af1f-2e1f823f986f_4453x2111.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jcKL!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff9ebf769-05a8-4230-af1f-2e1f823f986f_4453x2111.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;">Source: authors' elaboration based on World Bank and IMF data.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The peripheral state, far from resisting this logic, actively sustains it. Central banks maintain high interest rates to attract volatile capital and accumulate large quantities of dollar reserves &#8212; mostly US Treasury bills &#8212; on which they earn minimal returns, imposing enormous opportunity costs on the domestic economy. They conduct sterilization operations that generate debt on their own balance sheets. All of this is justified in the name of &#8220;financial stability&#8221; and &#8220;monetary credibility,&#8221; but in practice, it amounts to a new form of tribute to the core for the privilege of participating in a global financial market whose rules are written elsewhere.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Bona and Wainer (2025) have systematized these channels from the standpoint of Marxist dependency theory, tracing how financial subordination reinforces each phase of the dependent capital cycle: in the D phase, volatile capital enters seeking short-term gains; in the M phase, external indebtedness intensifies the super-exploitation of labor by compressing public spending and wages; in the D&#8217; phase, profits are externalized or dissipated internally. Their empirical analysis reveals two varieties of subordinate financialization: Argentina, trapped by &#8220;original sin&#8221; (75% of its sovereign debt denominated in foreign currency) and deposit dollarization (27.9%); and Brazil, which overcame original sin but at the cost of guaranteeing real interest rates of +3.6% for a decade &#8212; the so-called &#8220;return of original sin&#8221; &#8212; constraining all redistributive policy through the macroeconomic tripod.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The CH index assigns precise coordinates to these two cases on the monetary pyramid. Argentina&#8217;s CH of 0.020 and Brazil&#8217;s of 0.143 mean that their effective financial dependency is amplified by an additional 49% and 43%, respectively, once their currencies' positions in the global monetary hierarchy are taken into account.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>The Anatomy of the Surplus: Four Channels</strong></p><p style="text-align: justify;">To quantify the logic of financial dependency at a global scale, we construct a complete decomposition of the economic surplus for 67 countries over the period 1995&#8211;2023. The surplus flows to four distinct destinations.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The first is productive investment, which we call Channel 1. Gross fixed capital formation (machinery, infrastructure, equipment) is the only channel that reproduces and expands the productive base. As we showed in <em>Where the Surplus Goes?</em> (L&#243;pez, 2026), the Baran Ratio measures what share of capital-controlled surplus is reinvested in the productive cycle.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Channel 2 is the share directed to financial rent abroad: interest payments on external debt plus profits and dividends repatriated by foreign direct and portfolio investment. It is the rent that international financial capital extracts from the peripheral economy by virtue of its position as creditor and owner.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Channel 3 is capital flight/export: unrecorded flows estimated using the Balance of Payments residual method (Ndikumana and Boyce). For the periphery, these are outflows not reported as FDI or debt repayment &#8212; a defensive flight in the face of crisis. For the core, this concept represents net capital exports toward the periphery: the same capital that later generates the Channel 2 that the periphery repays.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Channel 4 is the unproductive domestic residual: what remains of the surplus after the previous three channels. It captures luxury consumption by dominant classes, domestic financialization (consumer credit, internal speculative rents), and surplus that simply never reaches investment. It is the &#8220;wasted potential surplus&#8221; that Paul Baran conceptualized.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Figure 3 shows a gradient that is not linear but structural: positions within the global system systematically produce distinct patterns of surplus use. The hegemonic core reinvests 57% of its surplus in productive capital. Non-hegemonic autonomy nations &#8212; China, Malaysia, for example &#8212; reinvest 61%, surpassing the core itself. The contested semi-periphery falls to 49%, while the subordinate periphery reinvests only 35%. Channel 4 follows the inverse pattern: 8% in the core, 23% in non-hegemonic autonomy, 38% in the semi-periphery, 53% in the periphery. More than half of the surplus generated by the Latin American peripheral bourgeoisie goes neither to productive investment nor to recorded financial transfers; it dissipates in the internal circuit of luxury consumption, domestic financial speculation, and real estate rent.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Figure 3. Anatomy of the economic surplus</strong></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!12KJ!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4089bbc3-d425-4bd7-9441-b5d17afac08f_5486x2218.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!12KJ!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4089bbc3-d425-4bd7-9441-b5d17afac08f_5486x2218.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!12KJ!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4089bbc3-d425-4bd7-9441-b5d17afac08f_5486x2218.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!12KJ!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4089bbc3-d425-4bd7-9441-b5d17afac08f_5486x2218.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!12KJ!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4089bbc3-d425-4bd7-9441-b5d17afac08f_5486x2218.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!12KJ!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4089bbc3-d425-4bd7-9441-b5d17afac08f_5486x2218.png" width="5486" height="2218" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/4089bbc3-d425-4bd7-9441-b5d17afac08f_5486x2218.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:2218,&quot;width&quot;:5486,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:769212,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/194384432?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb25cbc77-a42f-4e18-83d7-428ad27be531_5486x2290.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!12KJ!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4089bbc3-d425-4bd7-9441-b5d17afac08f_5486x2218.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!12KJ!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4089bbc3-d425-4bd7-9441-b5d17afac08f_5486x2218.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!12KJ!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4089bbc3-d425-4bd7-9441-b5d17afac08f_5486x2218.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!12KJ!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4089bbc3-d425-4bd7-9441-b5d17afac08f_5486x2218.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Source: authors&#8217; elaboration based on World Bank, Penn World Table, and IMF data.</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;">This finding challenges conventional narratives of &#8220;underdevelopment&#8221; &#8212; a point we developed in our previous article (L&#243;pez, 2026). The subordinate periphery does not lack a surplus: it generates it in considerable quantities, with labor exploitation rates significantly higher than in the core. The problem is not scarcity but destination. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012), for example, would attribute this pattern to &#8220;extractive institutions&#8221; that discourage productive investment: low development of productive forces persists, they argue, because elites prefer institutions that allow rent extraction over wealth creation. But this explanation inverts the causality. Institutions are not the cause of peripheral financial subordination; they are a symptom of it. The global financial architecture makes not investing productively the rational decision given the system in which these classes operate. The peripheral bourgeoisie does not reinvest because it has no national development project. Its class insertion does not require developing the domestic market or expanding the productive apparatus. Financial assets and real estate in chronically inflationary economies offer far superior and safer returns than fixed capital, and that logic is perfectly coherent with a class that accumulates by integrating into global financial circuits as a junior partner of metropolitan capital. Channel 4 is not an institutional failure: it is the logical result of an economy organized &#8212; from outside and with a class structure inherited from colonialism &#8212; for something else entirely.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Figure 4 clearly shows that position in the monetary hierarchy &#8212; captured by the CH &#8212; correlates with Channel 4, with r = &#8722;0.697 (p &lt; 0.001). This is not a direct or mechanical relationship. Low CH does not directly cause surplus dissipation: it conditions it through volatility. Subordinate currencies are structurally unstable; that instability shortens business planning horizons; short horizons make financial and speculative assets outperform productive investment in expected returns. Channel 4 is financial dependency manifesting itself in the everyday behavior of the peripheral bourgeoisie &#8212; not as conspiracy but as rational calculation in a system designed to produce exactly that result.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The concrete Channel 3 data confirm and refine this picture. Chile &#8212; the emblematic example of neoliberal success in Latin America &#8212; shows average capital flight of 9.1% of GDP over the period 1995&#8211;2023, the highest in the sample.<em>&#185;</em> But what distinguishes Chile is not only the magnitude of flight: it is the combination with the highest profit repatriation rate (Channel 2 at 4.3% of GDP), reflecting the exceptional weight of foreign direct investment in mining. Chile&#8217;s total financial extraction &#8212; Channel 2 plus Channel 3 &#8212; exceeds 10% of GDP annually. Ecuador records 3.6%. Argentina averages 2.3% in flight, but with extreme GDP volatility (6.0%) and ten recession episodes in 29 years. Brazil loses 0.8% of GDP annually to capital flight.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Figure 4. The mechanics of Financial Dependency: transfers, monetary hierarchy, and surplus dissipation</strong></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!V2yL!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F45b69d2e-7b2f-4907-81c5-125fdf3f479b_5421x2778.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!V2yL!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F45b69d2e-7b2f-4907-81c5-125fdf3f479b_5421x2778.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!V2yL!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F45b69d2e-7b2f-4907-81c5-125fdf3f479b_5421x2778.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!V2yL!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F45b69d2e-7b2f-4907-81c5-125fdf3f479b_5421x2778.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!V2yL!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F45b69d2e-7b2f-4907-81c5-125fdf3f479b_5421x2778.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!V2yL!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F45b69d2e-7b2f-4907-81c5-125fdf3f479b_5421x2778.png" width="1456" height="746" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/45b69d2e-7b2f-4907-81c5-125fdf3f479b_5421x2778.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:746,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:872098,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/194384432?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F45b69d2e-7b2f-4907-81c5-125fdf3f479b_5421x2778.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!V2yL!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F45b69d2e-7b2f-4907-81c5-125fdf3f479b_5421x2778.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!V2yL!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F45b69d2e-7b2f-4907-81c5-125fdf3f479b_5421x2778.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!V2yL!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F45b69d2e-7b2f-4907-81c5-125fdf3f479b_5421x2778.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!V2yL!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F45b69d2e-7b2f-4907-81c5-125fdf3f479b_5421x2778.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Source: authors&#8217; elaboration based on World Bank, Penn World Table, and IMF data.</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Channel 2, in absolute terms, is equally revealing. Between 2015 and 2019, just seven Latin American economies &#8212; Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, and Peru &#8212; transferred abroad in financial rent (interest plus profits) an annual average of $124 billion: Brazil $47.7bn, Mexico $31.9bn, Argentina $15.4bn, Peru $9.8bn, Chile $9.2bn, Colombia $8.0bn, Ecuador $2.4bn. At the same time, the hegemonic core was receiving, net, $433 billion annually in financial rent from the rest of the world.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The pattern that Figure 5 makes visible is not simply &#8220;crisis equals flight.&#8221; It is a three-phase cycle that repeats with almost mechanical regularity. First, capital enters: international investors borrow in dollars at low interest rates and lend in peripheral currencies at high interest rates. In Argentina, this is legible in the blue zone of 2016&#8211;2018; in Chile, in the peaks of mining cycles; in Brazil, in the portfolio flows of the Lula era. Second, the cycle reverses: recession or sudden stop &#8212; often triggered by the accumulated weight of external debt or an external interest rate shock &#8212; produces massive exit. The shaded recession years and the peaks of the colored zone coincide with a synchrony that is not random: Argentina in 2001&#8211;2002 and 2020, Brazil in 2015&#8211;2016, Chile in 2009, Colombia, and Mexico in episodes of external volatility. Third, the cycle resets: when peripheral assets have cheapened sufficiently, capital re-enters &#8212; now buying at fire-sale prices what the crisis depreciated &#8212; and recaptures the return differential. The blue zone that follows each exit peak is not recovery: it is the beginning of the next extraction cycle. There is no anomaly in this pattern. There is a business sustained by the institutional architecture that enables it.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Figure 5. Capital flight cycles: six Latin American countries, 1995&#8211;2023</strong></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3yrQ!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F596eb797-fcbb-4108-8c0a-5266ff365ff2_5340x3067.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3yrQ!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F596eb797-fcbb-4108-8c0a-5266ff365ff2_5340x3067.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3yrQ!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F596eb797-fcbb-4108-8c0a-5266ff365ff2_5340x3067.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3yrQ!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F596eb797-fcbb-4108-8c0a-5266ff365ff2_5340x3067.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3yrQ!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F596eb797-fcbb-4108-8c0a-5266ff365ff2_5340x3067.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3yrQ!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F596eb797-fcbb-4108-8c0a-5266ff365ff2_5340x3067.png" width="5340" height="3067" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/596eb797-fcbb-4108-8c0a-5266ff365ff2_5340x3067.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:3067,&quot;width&quot;:5340,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:2510968,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/194384432?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb8a0ecf7-b55d-4d75-a479-b4fcc3b041e3_5340x3207.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3yrQ!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F596eb797-fcbb-4108-8c0a-5266ff365ff2_5340x3067.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3yrQ!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F596eb797-fcbb-4108-8c0a-5266ff365ff2_5340x3067.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3yrQ!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F596eb797-fcbb-4108-8c0a-5266ff365ff2_5340x3067.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3yrQ!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F596eb797-fcbb-4108-8c0a-5266ff365ff2_5340x3067.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Source: authors&#8217; elaboration based on World Bank, Penn World Table, and IMF data.</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;">This dynamic is not exclusive to Latin America. Ndikumana and Boyce&#8217;s work on Africa reveals the same logic operating at an even more devastating scale. Between 1970 and 2015, thirty African countries lost an estimated $1.4 trillion in capital flight &#8212; rising to $1.8 trillion if imputed interest earnings are included &#8212; far exceeding the same countries&#8217; external debt stock ($497 billion in 2015) and the $992 billion received in official development assistance over the same period. Africa does not lack resources: it is systematically dispossessed of them. Nigeria alone lost $340 billion. The accumulated capital flight from the Democratic Republic of Congo represents 706% of its GDP. These are the financial expression of the same comprador logic that the Baran Ratio captures in the productive sphere: a dominant class whose wealth does not depend on national economic development but on integrating into global financial circuits as a junior partner of metropolitan capital.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>The Debt Trap and the IMF as Its Enforcer</strong></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Capital flight and external debt are two sides of the same coin &#8212; what Ndikumana and Boyce call the &#8220;revolving door&#8221; of peripheral finance. Countries borrow abroad at high interest rates, and the borrowed funds, rather than being used to finance productive development, facilitate capital flight by national and foreign elites. The debt stays; the capital leaves.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Our data confirm the structural nature of this dynamic. Between 1995 and 2023, external debt liabilities as a share of GDP grew steadily across Latin America: Chile rose from 19% to 61% of GDP, Ecuador from 34% to 69%, Colombia from 14% to 44%, Mexico from 23% to 34%, and Brazil from 11% to 19%. The contrast with states that subordinated financial flows to productive accumulation is stark: China kept its external debt between 8% and 15% of GDP over the same period; India between 16% and 19%.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The core, meanwhile, accumulated far higher external debt levels &#8212; France from 46% to 232%, the United Kingdom from 109% to 296%, the United States from 26% to 112% &#8212; without triggering the crisis dynamics that destroy peripheral economies at much lower thresholds. But this accelerated indebtedness should not be read as a sign of strength. As Arrighi argued, the turn to finance is the &#8220;autumn&#8221; of every hegemonic cycle: when the dominant power can no longer maintain its dominance through productive superiority, it resorts to financial expansion, borrowing against a future it can no longer guarantee.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The difference between core and peripheral debt is not only one of magnitude: it is qualitative and has deep historical roots. The same stock of external liabilities produces qualitatively worse effects in Lima than in Frankfurt because the Peruvian sol offers no refuge in a crisis while the euro can. That monetary asymmetry is not a technical accident &#8212; it is the contemporary form of a subordination that dates from colonization itself. The global financial architecture did not create peripheral dependency; it gave it a new institutional form. When Chile&#8217;s debt triples from 19% to 61% of GDP while 9.1% of its economy escapes annually as capital flight, this is not a &#8220;developing country catching up with global finance.&#8221; It is the final chapter of a history of dispossession that began with the silver mines of Potos&#237; and the slave plantations of Bahia. The dollar replaced the pound, which replaced the Spanish real, but the direction of the transfer has never changed &#8212; only the mechanism: now automatic, mediated by interest rate differentials and credit ratings rather than gunboats and viceroys.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The IMF&#8217;s role in this cycle deserves to be stated plainly: it is the institutional guarantor of the dynamics we have described. All major IMF interventions in the periphery since the 1980s have followed the same template. Loans are extended under conditions of fiscal austerity, trade liberalization, capital account opening, and asset privatization. Capital account opening &#8212; presented as a technical condition of &#8220;financial modernization&#8221; &#8212; is in reality the <em>sine qua non</em> condition that keeps open the channel through which the rate differential becomes profitability for core financial capital: without open capital accounts, carry-trade does not work, volatile flows do not enter or exit, and the volatility that feeds them dissipates. The Fund not only executes the financial order: it reproduces it.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Argentina is the textbook case: the largest loan in IMF history ($57 billion, 2018), financed capital flight in real time; the dollars disbursed by the Fund were exiting the country through the financial account within months. The pattern is general: from the structural adjustment programs imposed on sub-Saharan Africa in the 1980s and 1990s &#8212; which coincided with the most intense periods of capital flight documented by Ndikumana and Boyce &#8212; to the conditionalities in Ecuador and the austerity regimes imposed on southern Europe after 2010, the Fund has systematically acted as the executor of a financial order that transfers resources from the periphery to the core, presenting that transfer as &#8220;stabilization.&#8221;</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Closing the Circle</strong></p><p style="text-align: justify;">The three articles in this series now form a complete argument. Dependency theory provides the structural framework: peripheral economies are subordinated through a combination of productive, commercial, financial, technological, and network mechanisms that operate simultaneously. The Baran Ratio shows that peripheral bourgeoisies &#8212; especially in Latin America &#8212; systematically underinvest surplus value in productive capital: a regional average of 36%, and extreme cases like Argentina (28%) and Peru (33%) that express the comprador logic in its most developed form. And the four-channel decomposition shows with precision where the diverted surplus goes: between 4% and 6% as financial rent abroad [C2], around 6% as flight [C3], and 53% as unproductive domestic residual [C4].</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The peripheral bourgeoisie does not invest productively in part because the return horizon of financial assets &#8212; enabled precisely by exchange rate instability and high interest rates &#8212; exceeds that of fixed capital investment. Core financial capital extracts rent precisely because that instability exists and reproduces itself. And the institutional architecture &#8212; from the IMF to the rating agencies that construct the EMBI+ &#8212; guarantees that it does. No one with real power over the system has incentives to stabilize it. Stability is not the equilibrium toward which peripheral financialized capitalism tends: it is precisely what dissolves its extraction mechanism.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Far from being a policy failure, this is a class strategy that operates through a financial architecture that rewards it. And it will not be reversed by &#8220;improving the business climate&#8221; or &#8220;attracting foreign investment.&#8221; It will only be reversed by the same political force that reversed it in East Asia: the capacity of national-popular movements to develop, from within and beyond state spheres, controls over capital, direct credit toward productive accumulation, and subordinate national and foreign capital to a sovereign development project.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">In a world in crisis, where dollar hegemony is in retreat and new alternative financial architectures are emerging, the conditions for breaking the financial leash are more favorable than at any time since the 1970s. To cut the leashes, priorities must be inverted: the material living conditions of the peoples of the South cannot be resolved with what remains after payments abroad in the form of rents, interest, and flight. A sovereign development project must center on breaking the vicious circuits of global financial capital &#8212; and that requires disputing the institutional mechanisms that reproduce them.</p><div><hr></div><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Emiliano L&#243;pez is a researcher at CONICET-Universidad Nacional de La Plata and Chief Economist at the Tricontinental Institute for Social Research.</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Luc&#237;a Converti is an economist from the Universidad de Buenos Aires and a researcher at the Tricontinental Institute for Social Research.</em></p><div><hr></div><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>References</strong></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Acemoglu, D., &amp; Robinson, J. A. (2012). <em>Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity, and Poverty</em>. Crown Publishers, New York.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Amin, S. (1976). <em>Unequal Development</em>. Monthly Review Press.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Arrighi, G. (1994). <em>The Long Twentieth Century</em>. Verso.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Bona, L. &amp; Wainer, A. (2025). La l&#243;gica financiera de la dependencia. Elementos te&#243;ricos y una breve aplicaci&#243;n para caracterizar los casos de Argentina y Brasil. <em>Revista Econom&#237;a</em>, 77(126), 27&#8211;47.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Eichengreen, B. &amp; Hausmann, R. (1999). Exchange rates and financial fragility. <em>NBER Working Paper</em> 7418.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Lane, P. R. &amp; Milesi-Ferretti, G. M. (2007). The external wealth of nations mark II. <em>Journal of International Economics</em>, 73(2), 223&#8211;250.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">L&#243;pez, E. (2026, March 19). <em>Where Does the Surplus Go? Peripheral Bourgeoisies and the Politics of Disinvestment</em>. Tricontinental Political Economy [Substack]. <a href="https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/where-does-the-surplus-go">https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/where-does-the-surplus-go</a></p><p style="text-align: justify;">L&#243;pez, E. &amp; Barrera Insua, F. (2026, March 5). <em>The Dependency Map and Mechanisms That Transcend National Borders</em>. Tricontinental Political Economy [Substack]. <a href="https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/the-dependency-map-and-mechanisms">https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/the-dependency-map-and-mechanisms</a></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Musthaq, F. (2021). Dependency in a financialised global economy. <em>Review of African Political Economy</em>, 48(167), 15&#8211;31.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Ndikumana, L. &amp; Boyce, J. K. (2018). Capital flight from Africa: updated methodology and new estimates. <em>Political Economy Research Institute Working Paper</em> 469. University of Massachusetts-Amherst.</p><div><hr></div><p><em><strong>Methodological Note</strong></em></p><p><strong>Data sources</strong></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5U5m!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F46d4681a-077a-4052-a126-69bc9a486a94_936x573.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5U5m!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F46d4681a-077a-4052-a126-69bc9a486a94_936x573.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5U5m!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F46d4681a-077a-4052-a126-69bc9a486a94_936x573.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5U5m!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F46d4681a-077a-4052-a126-69bc9a486a94_936x573.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5U5m!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F46d4681a-077a-4052-a126-69bc9a486a94_936x573.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5U5m!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F46d4681a-077a-4052-a126-69bc9a486a94_936x573.png" width="936" height="573" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/46d4681a-077a-4052-a126-69bc9a486a94_936x573.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:573,&quot;width&quot;:936,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:104610,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/194384432?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F69eeeba0-3c74-494f-98ce-4de9a3a5b7b5_936x720.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5U5m!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F46d4681a-077a-4052-a126-69bc9a486a94_936x573.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5U5m!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F46d4681a-077a-4052-a126-69bc9a486a94_936x573.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5U5m!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F46d4681a-077a-4052-a126-69bc9a486a94_936x573.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5U5m!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F46d4681a-077a-4052-a126-69bc9a486a94_936x573.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>&#8212;</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The CH index is the simple average of four normalized components: <strong>(1) </strong>share of public external debt in domestic currency &#8212; the inverse of Eichengreen and Hausmann&#8217;s &#8220;original sin&#8221; &#8212; drawn from World Bank International Debt Statistics for 46 countries; core countries are coded as fc_debt = 0 by definition, as they issue debt in their own currency; <strong>(2) </strong>currency weight in the IMF SDR basket; <strong>(3) </strong>access to permanent swap lines with the Federal Reserve or ECB; <strong>(4) </strong>share of global FX reserves (IMF COFER).</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Coverage: </strong>67 countries with complete data for all channels, 1995&#8211;2023. Guatemala is excluded from the Baran Ratio because of wage-share distortions from remittances (aprox. 10% of GDP). Ireland and the Netherlands are flagged as offshore financial centers where Channel 3 reflects capital re-export rather than flight.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Accounting identity: </strong>C1 + C2 + C3 + C4 = 100% of S in all observations, verified by arithmetic sum (standard deviation = 0.000).</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>&#185; The 9.1% average corresponds to years with available BoP residual method estimates. The average, including years without estimates, is 6.2% of GDP. The difference reflects coverage limitations of the method, not actual zero flights in those years.</em></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Re-Compradorisation: The Structural Logic Behind Trump’s Tariff War]]></title><description><![CDATA[By Shiran Illanperuma]]></description><link>https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/re-compradorisation-the-structural</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/re-compradorisation-the-structural</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Tricon Political Economy]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Wed, 01 Apr 2026 05:35:15 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/b45992f7-d440-40b3-8626-97dc6d039898_1440x1440.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>By Shiran Illanperuma </p><p style="text-align: justify;">A year ago, Donald Trump stood in Washington and declared &#8216;Liberation Day&#8217;. He unveiled sweeping &#8216;reciprocal tariffs&#8217; against dozens of countries &#8211; from China to Lesotho &#8211; and sold it as a defense of US workers, rooted in <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/videos/my-fellow-americans-this-is-liberation-day-april-2-2025-president-donald-j-trump-%F0%9F%87%BA%F0%9F%87%B8%F0%9F%A6%85/">nationalism</a>. Most analysts took him at his word. They called it protectionism. They called it mercantilism.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">They missed the point.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The tariffs are not about trade deficits. They are a coherent political-economic strategy aimed at reversing the most consequential structural shift of the past two decades &#8211; the slow, uneven, but real rise of economic autonomy across the Global South. Trump himself has been explicit about this, <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c1dnz7gw92zo">threatening</a> an additional 10% tariff on any country &#8216;aligning itself with the Anti-American policies of BRICS&#8217;. This isn&#8217;t economic nationalism. It&#8217;s a hegemonic counter-offensive.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">On 4 April 2025, Secretary of State Marco Rubio <a href="https://www.state.gov/secretary-of-state-marco-rubio-remarks-to-press-2">said</a> at NATO headquarters in Brussels that the tariffs were designed &#8216;to reset the global order of trade.&#8217; To &#8216;reset&#8217; means to put back into an original position. Nearly a year later, Rubio&#8217;s <a href="https://www.state.gov/releases/office-of-the-spokesperson/2026/02/secretary-of-state-marco-rubio-at-the-munich-security-conference">remarks</a> at the Munich Security Conference on 14 February 2026 made clear what that original position was: the US wishes to roll back a century of gains made by labor and national liberation movements.</p><h2>The New Mood in the Global South</h2><p style="text-align: justify;">Something shifted after 2008. The Global Financial Crisis cracked the credibility of the Northern-dominated economic order, and across the periphery, a new political mood began to consolidate. The Tricontinental: Institute for Social Research has called it exactly that &#8211; a <a href="https://thetricontinental.org/dossier-tricontinental-anniversary-global-south-sovereignty/">new mood</a>: a growing refusal, uneven and often contradictory, of the subordinate position the post-Cold War order had assigned to peripheral nations.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">BRICS &#8211; which began as BRIC in 2009 &#8211; became the institutional expression of this mood. By the mid-2020s, it had expanded into a grouping that, for the first time, combined the world&#8217;s largest oil exporters (Saudi Arabia, the UAE, Russia), its most populous states (India, China), and major emerging market economies spanning four continents. If that grouping developed effective coordination &#8211; a common payment system, a development bank with real lending capacity, currency arrangements that cut dollar dependency &#8211; it would structurally challenge US financial hegemony.</p><p><em><strong>Figure 1. BRICS vs G7: share of world GDP (PPP), 2002&#8211;2024.</strong></em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-CSm!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6391830e-d0fe-4576-b4dc-6bb91709f893_864x504.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-CSm!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6391830e-d0fe-4576-b4dc-6bb91709f893_864x504.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-CSm!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6391830e-d0fe-4576-b4dc-6bb91709f893_864x504.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-CSm!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6391830e-d0fe-4576-b4dc-6bb91709f893_864x504.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-CSm!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6391830e-d0fe-4576-b4dc-6bb91709f893_864x504.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-CSm!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6391830e-d0fe-4576-b4dc-6bb91709f893_864x504.png" width="864" height="504" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/6391830e-d0fe-4576-b4dc-6bb91709f893_864x504.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:504,&quot;width&quot;:864,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:30217,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/192811677?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6391830e-d0fe-4576-b4dc-6bb91709f893_864x504.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-CSm!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6391830e-d0fe-4576-b4dc-6bb91709f893_864x504.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-CSm!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6391830e-d0fe-4576-b4dc-6bb91709f893_864x504.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-CSm!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6391830e-d0fe-4576-b4dc-6bb91709f893_864x504.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-CSm!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6391830e-d0fe-4576-b4dc-6bb91709f893_864x504.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p><em>Source: IMF World Economic Outlook data, via EY Economy Watch (2024). BRICS+ = original five + Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, Saudi Arabia, UAE.</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Beyond BRICS, states across the Global South intensified debates over resource nationalism and de-dollarisation. Indonesia insisted its nickel be processed at home before export. India and Russia experimented with rupee-rouble trade. China pushed for IMF voting reform to reflect the actual weight of developing economies. None of this was a clean break from the Northern-dominated order. But each initiative chipped away at it.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Meanwhile, the institutional framework designed to restrain US commercial aggression was quietly dismantled by the US itself. Since 2019, Washington has blocked new appointments to the WTO&#8217;s Appellate Body, effectively disabling its dispute resolution mechanism. The &#8216;rules-based order&#8217; invoked to discipline others no longer applies to the power that built it.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">It is this dual movement &#8211; Southern institutions consolidating, Northern legal constraints collapsing &#8211; that produced the conditions for Trump&#8217;s tariff offensive. When the structures of constraint weaken, and the structures of autonomy strengthen, hegemonic powers face a choice: tolerate the shift, or interrupt it. Trump chose interruption.</p><h2>Tariffs as Imperial Strategy</h2><p style="text-align: justify;">The conventional debate treats tariffs as a response to trade deficits &#8211; as if the trade deficit were a natural disaster rather than the structural expression of dollar reserve-currency status and of four decades of deliberate US capital offshoring.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Here is what actually happened. The neoliberal order didn&#8217;t just liberalize trade. It cultivated a specific dependency relationship: the United States as the buyer of last resort for Global South export-oriented growth. From the <em>maquiladoras</em> of Mexico to the export processing zones of Sri Lanka, developmental models across the Global South were structured around access to the US consumer market as the primary engine of growth.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Export revenues, foreign exchange stability, employment, and political legitimacy all became contingent, in varying degrees, on continued US market access. This wasn&#8217;t comparative advantage at work. It was the architectural logic of dependency, reproduced through structural adjustment programs, bilateral investment treaties, and the WTO framework.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The comprador interests cultivated over those four decades didn&#8217;t disappear when BRICS expanded, or South-South rhetoric intensified. They remained embedded in the export industries, finance ministries, and national business associations of the very states most vocally pursuing strategic autonomy. Trump&#8217;s tariffs didn&#8217;t create this vulnerability. They reactivated it.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Then came the bilateral negotiation framework &#8211; and this is where the strategy becomes obvious.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">A multilateral forum would require the US to negotiate with the Global South as a collective. Bilateral dealmaking atomizes that collectivity into a competition between individual states for preferential access to a market being deliberately made scarcer.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Vietnam underbids Malaysia. Indonesia moves faster than India. The Philippines accepts terms that ASEAN as a whole would have rejected. Each state, responding rationally to the immediate threat of exclusion, deepens the fragmentation of exactly the South-South solidarity that might have produced collective leverage.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">This is the deepest mechanism of re-compradorisation: not dependency imposed by force, but dependency reactivated by incentive. The tariff regime doesn&#8217;t need to permanently close the US market. It only needs to threaten closure credibly enough that national elites recalculate their interests, decide that the costs of Southern solidarity exceed the costs of bilateral accommodation, and return to the queue.</p><h2>Modern Unequal Treaties: South Korea, Malaysia, and India</h2><p style="text-align: justify;">The nineteenth-century unequal treaty &#8211; imposed on China, the Ottoman Empire, Japan, and others &#8211; fixed tariff rates, extracted extraterritorial jurisdiction, and locked in &#8216;most favored nation&#8217; clauses. It maintained colonial hierarchy while preserving the formality of sovereign statehood.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The bilateral agreements of the Trump era are structurally analogous. Three cases make this visible: South Korea, Malaysia, and India.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em><strong>Table 1. Tariff trajectory from pre-Trump baseline to deal outcome.</strong></em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tC60!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F36875464-4965-4f3c-877a-686cd99c2f27_936x268.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tC60!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F36875464-4965-4f3c-877a-686cd99c2f27_936x268.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tC60!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F36875464-4965-4f3c-877a-686cd99c2f27_936x268.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tC60!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F36875464-4965-4f3c-877a-686cd99c2f27_936x268.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tC60!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F36875464-4965-4f3c-877a-686cd99c2f27_936x268.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tC60!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F36875464-4965-4f3c-877a-686cd99c2f27_936x268.png" width="936" height="268" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/36875464-4965-4f3c-877a-686cd99c2f27_936x268.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:268,&quot;width&quot;:936,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:65898,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/192811677?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F36875464-4965-4f3c-877a-686cd99c2f27_936x268.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tC60!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F36875464-4965-4f3c-877a-686cd99c2f27_936x268.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tC60!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F36875464-4965-4f3c-877a-686cd99c2f27_936x268.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tC60!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F36875464-4965-4f3c-877a-686cd99c2f27_936x268.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tC60!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F36875464-4965-4f3c-877a-686cd99c2f27_936x268.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Source: Own elaboration with data from USTR fact sheets; US Federal Register (2025&#8211;26); WTO MFN tariff schedules. GSP = Generalized System of Preferences, revoked for India in 2019.</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>South Korea</strong> is the clearest example of dependency reactivated through structural exposure. Seoul&#8217;s automotive sector exported nearly $35 billion in vehicles to the United States in 2024 &#8211; nearly half of its total automotive export volume. Its semiconductor industry is structurally irreplaceable in the global technology supply chain.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">When Trump imposed 25% tariffs on automobile imports and threatened equivalent measures on semiconductors, the response was immediate: a $350 billion investment <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/south-korean-parliament-expected-approve-350-bln-us-investment-bill-2026-03-12/">pledge</a> directed toward US facilities, <a href="https://ustr.gov/about/policy-offices/press-office/fact-sheets/2025/november/fact-sheet-united-states-and-korea-agree-korea-strategic-trade-and-investment-deal">elimination</a> of the 50,000-unit cap on US vehicle imports, and acceptance of US food and digital services standards.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The KORUS free trade agreement, which had governed the relationship since 2012 at near-zero tariff rates, was effectively nullified &#8211; replaced by a deal that locked in a 15% rate on most goods while leaving 50% sectoral tariffs on steel, aluminum, and copper untouched.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">South Korea gave up the terms of an existing agreement for something objectively worse. It did so because the alternative &#8211; exclusion from the US market at the moment when its semiconductor and auto industries face profound restructuring &#8211; was politically unacceptable to the national business class whose interests the state was managing.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Malaysia&#8217;s</strong> agreement is the most structurally revealing because it most nakedly exposes the industrial policy dimension of this new unequal treaty. A country with no prior US free trade agreement accepted 48 <a href="https://eastasiaforum.org/2025/12/06/the-art-of-the-deal-lost-in-us-malaysia-pact/">obligations</a> against three placed on Washington, including a prohibition on export restrictions for critical minerals that forecloses the very industrial upgrading strategy Indonesia had used successfully with nickel.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Malaysia&#8217;s semiconductor assembly and packaging sector, built over decades as a node in a US-designed supply chain, rendered it acutely vulnerable: its export revenues, its investment attraction model, and its position in US corporate supply chains all depended on continued access.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The deal it signed preserves that access at 19% &#8211; worse than the zero it had before &#8211; while binding its industrial policy and embedding a termination clause triggered if Malaysia signs agreements that &#8216;jeopardise US interests.&#8217;</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>India</strong> is the most instructive confirmation of the trend. The interim agreement announced in February 2026 bears the hallmarks of a colonial-era unequal treaty, as economist Prabhat Patnaik has <a href="https://peoplesdemocracy.in/2026/0215_pd/unequal-treaty-reminiscent-colonial-era">called</a> them. While the US imposes 18% on Indian goods, India is committed to effectively zero tariffs on US goods &#8211; institutionalising the kind of asymmetry imperial powers once imposed on states they did not directly rule.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">More striking still: India must buy at least $100 billion of US goods annually for five years. The most immediate mechanism for meeting that target is replacing discounted Russian crude oil with US oil, which is at least 20% more expensive, thereby imposing an inflationary drain directly on working people.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">That this deal was welcomed by the Indian stock market while devastating agrarian and working-class interests is not incidental. The Indian business and professional class &#8211; whose appetite for US market access had always strained against India&#8217;s posture of strategic autonomy &#8211; got what they wanted. Strategic autonomy was surrendered from within by the compradorisation quietly built over four decades of neoliberal integration.</p><h2 style="text-align: justify;"><strong>A Capitulation Foretold</strong></h2><p style="text-align: justify;">The classical unequal treaty operated through three mechanisms: fixing the colonized state&#8217;s tariff rates to prevent protective industrialization; granting foreign nationals exemption from local law; and extracting &#8216;most favored nation&#8217; clauses that gave imperial powers automatic access to any privileges granted to third parties.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The contemporary bilateral agreement operates through analogous mechanisms: locking in tariff rates that reflect the power differential of the negotiation rather than any principle of reciprocity; imposing technology export controls and supply chain requirements that constrain the signatory&#8217;s industrial policy autonomy; and embedding the entire arrangement within US domestic law.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The vulnerability of countries like South Korea, India, and Malaysia to such unequal treaties was measurable &#8211; and foretold.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em><strong>Table 2. Structural Dependency Index (SDI)of South Korea, Malaysia, and India (mean 1996&#8211;2023).</strong></em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ri8k!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7457be3b-63c8-4699-b9b9-4ddb7a1d0510_936x268.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ri8k!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7457be3b-63c8-4699-b9b9-4ddb7a1d0510_936x268.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ri8k!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7457be3b-63c8-4699-b9b9-4ddb7a1d0510_936x268.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ri8k!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7457be3b-63c8-4699-b9b9-4ddb7a1d0510_936x268.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ri8k!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7457be3b-63c8-4699-b9b9-4ddb7a1d0510_936x268.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ri8k!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7457be3b-63c8-4699-b9b9-4ddb7a1d0510_936x268.png" width="936" height="268" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/7457be3b-63c8-4699-b9b9-4ddb7a1d0510_936x268.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:268,&quot;width&quot;:936,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:37158,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/192811677?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7457be3b-63c8-4699-b9b9-4ddb7a1d0510_936x268.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ri8k!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7457be3b-63c8-4699-b9b9-4ddb7a1d0510_936x268.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ri8k!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7457be3b-63c8-4699-b9b9-4ddb7a1d0510_936x268.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ri8k!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7457be3b-63c8-4699-b9b9-4ddb7a1d0510_936x268.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ri8k!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7457be3b-63c8-4699-b9b9-4ddb7a1d0510_936x268.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Source: Own elaboration with data from WB, IFM, and OECD.</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;">The <a href="https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/the-dependency-map-and-mechanisms">Structural Dependency Index</a> (SDI), developed by Tricontinental: Institute for Social Research Chief Economist Emiliano Lopez, measures economic dependency across six dimensions &#8211; commercial (CD), financial (FD), productive (PD), technological (TD), network (ND), and distributive (DD) &#8211; for 31 countries from 1996 to 2023. The index measures economic dependency from a range of 0 to 1.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">All three countries examined above all had SDI scores well above 0.65, reflecting decades of integration into circuits of accumulation designed in Washington and operationalized through the very trade architecture Trump is now dismantling.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The data also reveals where each country is most exposed.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Malaysia registers the highest technological dependency score in the dataset (0.946), reflecting its position as an assembly node in US-designed semiconductor supply chains. South Korea&#8217;s network and productive dependency scores reflect an automotive and chip industry structurally embedded in the hegemonic production network. India&#8217;s productivity and technological scores confirm that the BJP&#8217;s &#8216;Make in India&#8217; rhetoric is far from reality.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The SDI cannot predict political outcomes. But it can map the terrain on which political outcomes become structurally probable. A country with a high dependency score is likely to capitulate because the costs of refusal are calibrated to what its comprador elites cannot afford to lose.</p><h2>Building the Southern Institutions</h2><p>Then something unexpected happened. The US constitutional order intervened.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">On 20 February 2026, the US Supreme Court <a href="https://www.congress.gov/crs-product/LSB11398">ruled</a> that the International Emergency Economic Powers Act did not authorize Trump to impose tariffs. All Liberation Day reciprocal tariffs were terminated on 24 February 2026.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Trump immediately <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/china/trump-orders-temporary-10-global-tariff-replace-duties-struck-down-by-us-supreme-2026-02-20/">substituted</a> a flat 10% global tariff under Section 122 of the Trade Act of 1974 &#8211; but this collapsed the entire architecture of differential bilateral pressure. Countries that had accepted tariffs of 15&#8211;20% and offered significant concessions now faced the same rate as countries that had signed nothing.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The consequences were swift. On 15 March 2026, Malaysia <a href="https://www.newindianexpress.com/business/2026/Mar/15/malaysia-exits-us-reciprocal-trade-deal-after-supreme-court-ruling">declared</a> its agreement with the US &#8216;null and void,&#8217; arguing the Supreme Court had removed its legal foundation. India moved with equal speed: a delegation scheduled to fly to Washington to finalize the trade agreement <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/india/india-delays-us-trade-talks-after-supreme-court-rejects-trump-tariffs-source-2026-02-22/">postponed</a> its visit, with no new date set. Deals extracted through months of coercive pressure lost their legal basis in days.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Whether this reprieve holds is uncertain &#8211; Trump has already <a href="https://ustr.gov/about/policy-offices/press-office/press-releases/2026/march/ustr-initiates-section-301-investigations-relating-structural-excess-capacity-and-production">launched</a> Section 301 investigations against many of the same countries. But it reframes the strategic question clearly: the Global South needs institutional infrastructure that makes resistance viable without the prohibitive costs that individual bilateral confrontation with US power currently imposes.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Three domains are essential. Payment systems that reduce exposure to dollar-denominated coercion. Technology and supply chain linkages that reduce Washington&#8217;s chokehold over industrialization. Development finance institutions that offer genuine alternatives to IMF and World Bank conditionality.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Initiatives like the New Development Bank and the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank are early, imperfect experiments in this direction &#8211; but they lack a theoretical and operational framework genuinely distinct from the dominant financial paradigm.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Re-compradorisation is not a fate. It is a project &#8211; and its outcome depends on whether the institutional alternatives to dependency can be built quickly enough, and consolidated firmly enough, to make the costs of imperial pressure higher than the costs of resistance.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">More than that, it depends on whether social movements in the periphery can capture state power and use it to discipline the comprador class to act in the national interest. That political-economic work &#8211; unglamorous, institutional, requiring the patient construction of South-South infrastructure &#8211; is the central task of this moment.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The structural conditions for surrender are already in place. What isn&#8217;t yet built is the infrastructure for sovereignty. That&#8217;s the work.</p><div><hr></div><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Shiran Illanperuma is a researcher at Tricontinental: Institute for Social Research and a co-editor of the international edition of </em>Wenhua Zongheng: A Journal of Contemporary Chinese Thought<em>. He is a Visiting Lecturer at the Bandaranaike for International Studies.</em> <em>His current research focuses on development and industrial policy in Asia.</em></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[¿A dónde va el excedente?]]></title><description><![CDATA[Burgues&#237;as perif&#233;ricas y la pol&#237;tica de la desinversi&#243;n]]></description><link>https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/a-donde-va-el-excedente</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/a-donde-va-el-excedente</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Tricon Political Economy]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Mon, 23 Mar 2026 05:33:08 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/390d91bf-bba8-4981-84a1-da7ded5a6790_1440x1440.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p></p><p><strong>Emiliano L&#243;pez</strong></p><div><hr></div><p>Paul Baran abri&#243; <em>La econom&#237;a pol&#237;tica del crecimiento</em> (1957) con una pregunta que la mayor&#237;a de los economistas del desarrollo a&#250;n se niegan a tomar en serio: si las econom&#237;as perif&#233;ricas generan un excedente econ&#243;mico &#8212; la diferencia entre lo que la sociedad produce y lo que necesita para reproducirse &#8212;, &#191;por qu&#233; tan poco de ese excedente se traduce en desarrollo productivo? El excedente existe. En muchos casos, representa una fracci&#243;n sustancial del ingreso nacional. El obst&#225;culo no es la escasez. Es lo que las clases dominantes hacen con lo que extraen.</p><p>Baran distingui&#243; entre el excedente real &#8212; lo que efectivamente se ahorra y se acumula &#8212; y el excedente potencial: lo que una econom&#237;a podr&#237;a acumular si el orden social existente no lo despilfarrara. Ese despilfarro adopta cuatro formas: el consumo excesivo de las clases propietarias, el trabajo improductivo, la organizaci&#243;n irracional de la producci&#243;n y el desempleo. En los pa&#237;ses perif&#233;ricos, la combinaci&#243;n es devastadora. Los terratenientes gastan sus rentas en importaciones de lujo y en residencias urbanas en lugar de mejorar la productividad agr&#237;cola; el capital mercantil circula por la usura y la especulaci&#243;n antes que en la producci&#243;n de bienes y servicios; los monopolios extranjeros repatrian ganancias en lugar de reinvertirlas localmente. Baran document&#243; esto con rigor emp&#237;rico: &#8220;La mayor parte de este excedente no se utiliza para expandir ni mejorar las instalaciones y los equipos productivos.&#8221; Grandes porciones del excedente fluyen al exterior, se consumen ostentosamente o son absorbidas por operaciones financieras sin contenido productivo.</p><p>Baran y Sweezy extendieron el argumento en <em>El capital monopolista</em> (1966): bajo el capitalismo monopolista, el excedente tiende a crecer a medida que los canales de inversi&#243;n productiva se contraen, lo que empuja al capital hacia el despliegue financiero antes que el productivo. Lo que este marco a&#250;n requer&#237;a era un an&#225;lisis de clases, es decir, la identificaci&#243;n del agente social espec&#237;fico cuyas elecciones producen estos resultados. Vania Bambirra, desde la tradici&#243;n dependentista latinoamericana, pens&#243; en este problema. La autora refut&#243; dos ilusiones a la vez: la expectativa de una alianza antiimperialista con una &#8220;burgues&#237;a nacional progresista&#8221; y la convicci&#243;n cepalina de que el capital industrial impulsar&#237;a org&#225;nicamente la transformaci&#243;n nacional. Ambas malinterpretaron la estructura de clases que realmente existe en Am&#233;rica Latina. La gran burgues&#237;a all&#237; no es una burgues&#237;a nacional frustrada, a la espera de las condiciones adecuadas para invertir productivamente. Es una clase cuya acumulaci&#243;n se encuentra constitutivamente articulada con el imperialismo &#8212; dominante en lo interno, subordinada en lo internacional &#8212; cuyos intereses materiales contradec&#237;an el tipo de desarrollo que ambas tradiciones esperaban de esta clase. </p><p>Con datos sistem&#225;ticos de 36 pa&#237;ses durante 28 a&#241;os (1996&#8211;2023), estas no son solo afirmaciones te&#243;ricas.</p><h2>Midiendo ad&#243;nde va el excedente</h2><p>El ratio de Baran mide la proporci&#243;n del excedente econ&#243;mico &#8212; el PIB menos la remuneraci&#243;n total de los asalariados &#8212; que alcanza la formaci&#243;n bruta de capital fijo: maquinaria, infraestructura, equipamiento y los fundamentos materiales de la capacidad productiva. Esto capta algo que los ratios inversi&#243;n-PIB oscurecen: dividir la inversi&#243;n por el producto total confunde el excedente controlado por el capital con el ingreso salarial percibido por los trabajadores. La pregunta que Baran formulaba no es cu&#225;nto del producto total invierte un pa&#237;s, sino cu&#225;nto del excedente que las clases dominantes controlan se destina a la acumulaci&#243;n productiva y cu&#225;nto no. Ambas cosas pueden moverse en direcciones muy diferentes y, en la periferia, lo hacen sistem&#225;ticamente.</p><p><em>Figura 1. Ratio de Baran por Posici&#243;n Estructural (1996&#8211;2023)</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dR5v!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F59d2155f-fb82-4a90-9fbd-987fc46c6252_3035x1824.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dR5v!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F59d2155f-fb82-4a90-9fbd-987fc46c6252_3035x1824.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dR5v!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F59d2155f-fb82-4a90-9fbd-987fc46c6252_3035x1824.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dR5v!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F59d2155f-fb82-4a90-9fbd-987fc46c6252_3035x1824.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dR5v!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F59d2155f-fb82-4a90-9fbd-987fc46c6252_3035x1824.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dR5v!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F59d2155f-fb82-4a90-9fbd-987fc46c6252_3035x1824.png" width="3035" height="1824" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/59d2155f-fb82-4a90-9fbd-987fc46c6252_3035x1824.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1824,&quot;width&quot;:3035,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:260486,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/191830574?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5065825a-3719-4e4e-bb2a-48a007d9fa58_3035x1909.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dR5v!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F59d2155f-fb82-4a90-9fbd-987fc46c6252_3035x1824.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dR5v!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F59d2155f-fb82-4a90-9fbd-987fc46c6252_3035x1824.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dR5v!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F59d2155f-fb82-4a90-9fbd-987fc46c6252_3035x1824.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dR5v!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F59d2155f-fb82-4a90-9fbd-987fc46c6252_3035x1824.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Fuente: elaboraci&#243;n propia con base en datos de BM, FMI y Penn World Table. </p><p>La media global del ratio de Baran en nuestra muestra de 36 pa&#237;ses es del 50% &#8212; aproximadamente la mitad del excedente se destina a la inversi&#243;n productiva. Ese promedio es menos informativo que lo que subyace a &#233;l: un gradiente que no es aleatorio ni producto de dotaciones diferenciales ni de accidentes institucionales, sino una expresi&#243;n estructural de la posici&#243;n en la jerarqu&#237;a global del capital.</p><p>A lo largo del per&#237;odo completo 1996&#8211;2023, Corea del Sur reinvierte productivamente el 70% de su excedente; China, el 64%. Pero estos promedios del per&#237;odo completo aplanan una trayectoria que ha variado dr&#225;sticamente. Desde 2013 &#8212; el a&#241;o en que China alcanz&#243; su pico del 98% y comenz&#243; a estabilizarse en un nuevo piso estructural &#8212; el panorama es sustancialmente diferente: China ha promediado el 88%, Corea del Sur el 74%, India el 73%. Las econom&#237;as occidentales, mientras tanto, han ido en la direcci&#243;n contraria. Alemania promedi&#243; el 67% en 1996&#8211;2012; desde 2013, ha promediado apenas el 60%. Francia se mantuvo en el 63% y ha subido al 66% &#8212; una excepci&#243;n en un grupo que, generalmente, ha visto comprimirse la reinversi&#243;n productiva a medida que avanza la financiarizaci&#243;n. Estados Unidos se ha mantenido estable en torno al 53&#8211;54% en ambos per&#237;odos, lo que refleja la estructura particular de la acumulaci&#243;n de capital norteamericana. En el extremo inferior, la Periferia Subordinada latinoamericana ha promediado el 36% a lo largo del per&#237;odo completo, sin mejorar significativamente: Argentina pas&#243; del 25% al 32% entre los dos subper&#237;odos, y M&#233;xico del 37% al 34%.</p><p>Lo que hace que esta jerarqu&#237;a sea anal&#237;ticamente significativa es que no se alinea con el producto per c&#225;pita, ni con la dotaci&#243;n de recursos ni con las tasas nominales de inversi&#243;n. Se alinea con el grado en que el Estado ha subordinado hist&#243;ricamente la asignaci&#243;n del excedente a fines productivos y, detr&#225;s de ello, con las configuraciones de clase que hicieron posible o clausuraron dicha subordinaci&#243;n. La correlaci&#243;n entre la tasa de plusvalor y el ratio de Baran entre pa&#237;ses es r = &#8722;0,778: en los pa&#237;ses con la explotaci&#243;n m&#225;s alta, la reinversi&#243;n productiva es m&#225;s baja. En las naciones dependientes, la alta explotaci&#243;n y la baja reinversi&#243;n no son tendencias independientes entre s&#237;. Son dos caras de la misma estrategia de clase.</p><p><em>Figura 2. Perfil Estructural por Posici&#243;n en la Econom&#237;a Global</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RJsM!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F97a30ab9-6e0d-4069-9bb9-c291534a2c87_2583x2580.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RJsM!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F97a30ab9-6e0d-4069-9bb9-c291534a2c87_2583x2580.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RJsM!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F97a30ab9-6e0d-4069-9bb9-c291534a2c87_2583x2580.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RJsM!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F97a30ab9-6e0d-4069-9bb9-c291534a2c87_2583x2580.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RJsM!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F97a30ab9-6e0d-4069-9bb9-c291534a2c87_2583x2580.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RJsM!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F97a30ab9-6e0d-4069-9bb9-c291534a2c87_2583x2580.png" width="2583" height="2580" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/97a30ab9-6e0d-4069-9bb9-c291534a2c87_2583x2580.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:2580,&quot;width&quot;:2583,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:951924,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/191830574?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F02c91ff6-e68b-48f2-b811-1d2602b2f2f0_2583x2776.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RJsM!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F97a30ab9-6e0d-4069-9bb9-c291534a2c87_2583x2580.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RJsM!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F97a30ab9-6e0d-4069-9bb9-c291534a2c87_2583x2580.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RJsM!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F97a30ab9-6e0d-4069-9bb9-c291534a2c87_2583x2580.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RJsM!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F97a30ab9-6e0d-4069-9bb9-c291534a2c87_2583x2580.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Fuente: elaboraci&#243;n propia con base en datos de BM, FMI y Penn World Table. </p><p>El gr&#225;fico radar hace visible lo que los n&#250;meros agregados sugieren pero no muestran del todo: el perfil estructural de las econom&#237;as occidentales no es simplemente diferente al de la periferia, est&#225; constituido en relaci&#243;n con ella. La teor&#237;a del intercambio desigual de Arghiri Emmanuel ofrece un complemento crucial al Ratio de Baran. Donde Marx analiz&#243; la explotaci&#243;n en el punto de producci&#243;n dentro de una econom&#237;a nacional, Emmanuel mostr&#243; que el intercambio entre naciones con niveles salariales sistem&#225;ticamente diferentes transfiere valor de las econom&#237;as de bajos salarios a las de altos salarios, incluso en ausencia de cualquier mecanismo expl&#237;cito de coerci&#243;n. Las tasas de plusvalor relativamente m&#225;s bajas en Alemania y Francia, de 0,48 y 0,53 respectivamente, frente a 1,35 en Argentina y 1,73 en Per&#250;, no son simplemente el resultado de una tecnolog&#237;a m&#225;s productiva o de una mayor movilidad laboral en el centro. Se sostienen en parte por los t&#233;rminos en que el capital del Norte importa bienes producidos en el Sur bajo condiciones de superexplotaci&#243;n, capturando en el diferencial de precios una porci&#243;n del valor producido bajo condiciones salariales m&#225;s bajas. La baja tasa de explotaci&#243;n del Norte y la alta tasa de explotaci&#243;n del Sur no son fen&#243;menos independientes &#8212; est&#225;n conectados entre s&#237; a trav&#233;s de los circuitos del mercado mundial. Como muestra la Figura 2, cuatro perfiles estructurales distintos conforman un sistema &#250;nico con una divisi&#243;n jer&#225;rquica del trabajo, del excedente y de la reinversi&#243;n.</p><p>La Figura 3 ordena las 36 econom&#237;as seg&#250;n su ratio de Baran promedio durante el per&#237;odo. La imagen hace inconfundible la agrupaci&#243;n regional: las econom&#237;as latinoamericanas ocupan el fondo de la distribuci&#243;n casi sin excepci&#243;n, mientras que las econom&#237;as del Este Asi&#225;tico y de Europa Occidental se concentran en la cima. El gradiente no es continuo, sino que presenta quiebres que corresponden a diferentes posiciones estructurales.</p><p><em>Figura 3. Ranking de Pa&#237;ses: Utilizaci&#243;n Productiva del Excedente (1996&#8211;2023)</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aK26!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F80b4692a-ec49-4c4f-9c24-5ee4a95ba226_2964x3442.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aK26!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F80b4692a-ec49-4c4f-9c24-5ee4a95ba226_2964x3442.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aK26!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F80b4692a-ec49-4c4f-9c24-5ee4a95ba226_2964x3442.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aK26!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F80b4692a-ec49-4c4f-9c24-5ee4a95ba226_2964x3442.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aK26!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F80b4692a-ec49-4c4f-9c24-5ee4a95ba226_2964x3442.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aK26!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F80b4692a-ec49-4c4f-9c24-5ee4a95ba226_2964x3442.png" width="2964" height="3442" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/80b4692a-ec49-4c4f-9c24-5ee4a95ba226_2964x3442.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:3442,&quot;width&quot;:2964,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:678516,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/191830574?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F81ae2c8e-b6a5-4625-8a89-36316aca5c3e_2964x3551.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aK26!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F80b4692a-ec49-4c4f-9c24-5ee4a95ba226_2964x3442.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aK26!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F80b4692a-ec49-4c4f-9c24-5ee4a95ba226_2964x3442.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aK26!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F80b4692a-ec49-4c4f-9c24-5ee4a95ba226_2964x3442.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aK26!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F80b4692a-ec49-4c4f-9c24-5ee4a95ba226_2964x3442.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Fuente: elaboraci&#243;n propia con base en datos de BM, FMI y Penn World Table. </p><h2>China: c&#243;mo se ve lo contrario</h2><p>En 1996, China reinvert&#237;a productivamente el 29% de su excedente, por debajo de la media latinoamericana del per&#237;odo. La cifra merece sostenerse un momento: a mediados de los a&#241;os noventa, los trabajadores chinos produc&#237;an un excedente que era proporcionalmente menos reinvertido en producci&#243;n que en Argentina o en Colombia. Para 2008 el ratio hab&#237;a alcanzado el 60%, y en 2013 lleg&#243; a su pico del 98% &#8212; pr&#225;cticamente todo el excedente fue redirigido hacia la inversi&#243;n productiva, un valor sin parang&#243;n en nuestro conjunto de datos. En 2023 se hab&#237;a estabilizado en el 88%, a&#250;n muy por encima de cualquier econom&#237;a comparable. Lo que describe esa trayectoria no es simplemente crecimiento sino transformaci&#243;n estructural: un aumento triple en la utilizaci&#243;n productiva del excedente en tres d&#233;cadas, sostenido a trav&#233;s de ciclos pol&#237;ticos, crisis financieras y condiciones globales cambiantes.</p><p>El mecanismo detr&#225;s de esta trayectoria no es misterioso, pero s&#237; requiere una especificaci&#243;n cuidadosa. El ratio de Baran de China no aument&#243; debido a la transici&#243;n del sistema socialista al capitalista tras la reforma y la apertura. Esta es una explicaci&#243;n euroc&#233;ntrica: todos los procesos del mundo deben seguir la l&#243;gica de la modernidad europea. China no fue m&#225;s eficiente porque las fuerzas del mercado favorecieron, por casualidad, la inversi&#243;n productiva. La mejora se produjo porque los sucesivos Planes Quinquenales subordinaron la asignaci&#243;n del excedente a objetivos productivos expl&#237;citos &#8212; no como ejercicios tecnocr&#225;ticos de asignaci&#243;n de recursos, sino como instrumentos para integrar cadenas de valor nacionales, desarrollar capacidad tecnol&#243;gica dom&#233;stica y mover progresivamente la estructura productiva hacia una mayor complejidad. En el momento en que las econom&#237;as occidentales, desde la d&#233;cada de 1970, canalizaron una parte creciente del excedente hacia la valorizaci&#243;n financiera &#8212; acortando el circuito del capital, inflando los precios de los activos y desacoplando progresivamente los rendimientos financieros de la actividad productiva &#8212;, el Estado chino mantuvo el circuito largo: excedente hacia inversi&#243;n productiva, inversi&#243;n productiva hacia capacidad ampliada, y la capacidad ampliada hacia una integraci&#243;n m&#225;s profunda de la estructura productiva nacional. El resultado es visible no solo en el ratio de Baran, sino tambi&#233;n en la composici&#243;n de las exportaciones chinas, que pasaron del ensamblaje de bajo valor a la manufactura de alta complejidad precisamente durante el per&#237;odo en que el ratio aument&#243;.</p><p>Giovanni Arrighi, en <em>Adam Smith en Pek&#237;n</em>, atribuy&#243; el ascenso de China a la l&#243;gica smithiana de la divisi&#243;n del trabajo y de la expansi&#243;n del mercado. Lo que muestra el ratio de Baran es algo diferente: la trayectoria china est&#225; impulsada no por el intercambio sino por la direcci&#243;n sistem&#225;tica del excedente hacia la inversi&#243;n en capital fijo &#8212; una l&#243;gica m&#225;s cercana al an&#225;lisis marxiano de la reproducci&#243;n ampliada que a la lectura smithiana del desarrollo comercial.</p><p>Esto importa para el argumento m&#225;s amplio de este art&#237;culo porque ilustra lo que el marco que hemos desarrollado en nuestro art&#237;culo previo, <em>Construyendo Soberan&#237;a</em>, capta a trav&#233;s de la dimensi&#243;n de la dependencia productiva: la importancia del grado en que una econom&#237;a controla su propia estructura productiva, en lugar de ocupar una posici&#243;n subordinada en cadenas de valor controladas desde fuera. El ascenso de China fue simult&#225;neamente un aumento del ratio de Baran y una reducci&#243;n de la dependencia productiva, y ambos procesos no son independientes entre s&#237;. La capacidad de reinvertir el excedente productivamente y la de desarrollar una estructura productiva aut&#243;noma se condicionan mutuamente: la inversi&#243;n profundiza la cadena de valor, y una cadena de valor m&#225;s profunda genera ganancias de productividad que ampl&#237;an lo que puede reinvertirse. Esta es la din&#225;mica de desarrollo que la teor&#237;a de la dependencia predijo que era posible bajo condiciones pol&#237;ticas espec&#237;ficas, y los datos confirman que se alcanz&#243; en China a lo largo de tres d&#233;cadas.</p><p><em>Figura 4. Ratio de Baran por Regi&#243;n Geogr&#225;fica (1996&#8211;2023)</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ihha!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc4cbdf8f-3f36-41e7-8a3b-39023521e05f_3485x1836.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ihha!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc4cbdf8f-3f36-41e7-8a3b-39023521e05f_3485x1836.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ihha!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc4cbdf8f-3f36-41e7-8a3b-39023521e05f_3485x1836.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ihha!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc4cbdf8f-3f36-41e7-8a3b-39023521e05f_3485x1836.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ihha!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc4cbdf8f-3f36-41e7-8a3b-39023521e05f_3485x1836.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ihha!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc4cbdf8f-3f36-41e7-8a3b-39023521e05f_3485x1836.png" width="3485" height="1836" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/c4cbdf8f-3f36-41e7-8a3b-39023521e05f_3485x1836.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1836,&quot;width&quot;:3485,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:652372,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/191830574?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F870923cc-c612-45eb-87a1-e6f7f482ce61_3485x1934.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ihha!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc4cbdf8f-3f36-41e7-8a3b-39023521e05f_3485x1836.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ihha!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc4cbdf8f-3f36-41e7-8a3b-39023521e05f_3485x1836.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ihha!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc4cbdf8f-3f36-41e7-8a3b-39023521e05f_3485x1836.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ihha!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc4cbdf8f-3f36-41e7-8a3b-39023521e05f_3485x1836.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Fuente: elaboraci&#243;n propia con base en datos de BM, FMI y Penn World Table. </p><p>La crisis de 2008 marc&#243; una inflexi&#243;n visible en las trayectorias regionales. Para las econom&#237;as occidentales, la salida de la crisis no restaur&#243; el circuito productivo; sino que profundiz&#243; su desarticulaci&#243;n. La respuesta de los bancos centrales canaliz&#243; liquidez extraordinaria no hacia la inversi&#243;n productiva, sino hacia un nuevo ciclo de expansi&#243;n financiera, inicialmente a trav&#233;s de la flexibilizaci&#243;n cuantitativa y de tasas de inter&#233;s cercanas a cero, y posteriormente a trav&#233;s del crecimiento apalancado de plataformas tecnol&#243;gicas cuyas valuaciones descansan menos en la capacidad productiva que en las rentas de monopolio sobre datos, servicios e infraestructura digital. La interconexi&#243;n de las valuaciones de las grandes tecnol&#243;gicas con los mercados financieros &#8212; y, cada vez m&#225;s, con la industria armament&#237;stica a trav&#233;s de contratos de defensa y tecnolog&#237;as de doble uso &#8212; ha producido una forma de acumulaci&#243;n de capital simult&#225;neamente muy concentrada y estructuralmente desconectada de la producci&#243;n de bienes y servicios. Las cadenas productivas internas del capitalismo occidental, progresivamente externalizadas desde la d&#233;cada de 1970 y nunca reconstruidas tras la crisis, no pueden absorber el excedente generado por la expansi&#243;n financiera. El resultado es visible en los datos: los ratios de Baran occidentales, ya en declive antes de 2008, continuaron comprimi&#233;ndose despu&#233;s, mientras que la participaci&#243;n del sector financiero en las ganancias corporativas se expandi&#243;. El excedente se est&#225; reinvirtiendo, pero en circuitos que inflan activos antes que en la capacidad productiva.</p><p><em>Figura 5. Trayectorias del Ratio de Baran: Tres Patrones Estructurales (1996&#8211;2023)</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mZpk!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Feaebf5fc-c6e3-4ba2-9a89-30f09bb9d874_3497x4029.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mZpk!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Feaebf5fc-c6e3-4ba2-9a89-30f09bb9d874_3497x4029.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mZpk!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Feaebf5fc-c6e3-4ba2-9a89-30f09bb9d874_3497x4029.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mZpk!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Feaebf5fc-c6e3-4ba2-9a89-30f09bb9d874_3497x4029.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mZpk!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Feaebf5fc-c6e3-4ba2-9a89-30f09bb9d874_3497x4029.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mZpk!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Feaebf5fc-c6e3-4ba2-9a89-30f09bb9d874_3497x4029.png" width="3497" height="4029" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/eaebf5fc-c6e3-4ba2-9a89-30f09bb9d874_3497x4029.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:4029,&quot;width&quot;:3497,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:1627598,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/191830574?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb9d08da7-d958-40ee-ad16-d289f91a15a8_3497x4645.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mZpk!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Feaebf5fc-c6e3-4ba2-9a89-30f09bb9d874_3497x4029.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mZpk!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Feaebf5fc-c6e3-4ba2-9a89-30f09bb9d874_3497x4029.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mZpk!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Feaebf5fc-c6e3-4ba2-9a89-30f09bb9d874_3497x4029.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mZpk!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Feaebf5fc-c6e3-4ba2-9a89-30f09bb9d874_3497x4029.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Fuente: elaboraci&#243;n propia con base en datos de BM, FMI y Penn World Table. </p><h2>Am&#233;rica Latina y el doble drenaje</h2><p>Argentina reinvierte productivamente el 28% de su excedente durante el per&#237;odo de 28 a&#241;os, el valor m&#225;s bajo de la muestra. Per&#250; se sit&#250;a en el 33%, Colombia en el 34%, M&#233;xico en el 36% y Chile en el 38%. Alemania promedia el 64% durante el mismo per&#237;odo. Francia el 64%. Estados Unidos el 54%. Argentina destina a la inversi&#243;n productiva menos de la mitad de lo que destina Alemania, proporcionalmente a los excedentes que cada econom&#237;a genera, en un pa&#237;s que ha pasado medio siglo atrapado en ciclos de estancamiento, deuda y desindustrializaci&#243;n. Brasil, con el 42%, es el mejor desempe&#241;o de la regi&#243;n, y la brecha con Argentina y Per&#250; refleja la capacidad estatal parcial que Brasil ha logrado preservar &#8212; banca p&#250;blica, Petrobras, BNDES &#8212; antes que ninguna diferencia fundamental en la estructura de clases.</p><p>Lo que hace que estas cifras sean estructuralmente distintas no es solo la baja tasa de reinversi&#243;n sino la combinaci&#243;n. Los trabajadores argentinos producen 1,35 unidades de excedente por cada unidad que perciben en salarios, una tasa de explotaci&#243;n casi el doble que la de los trabajadores alemanes o franceses (0,48 y 0,53 respectivamente). Per&#250; es a&#250;n m&#225;s extremo: una tasa de plusvalor de 1,73, lo que significa que los trabajadores generan casi tres veces su propio salario en excedente, mientras que la econom&#237;a destina solo el 33% de ese excedente a la inversi&#243;n productiva. Colombia (TSP 1,56, Baran 34%), M&#233;xico (TSP 1,35, Baran 36%): el patr&#243;n se repite en toda la regi&#243;n con una regularidad que descarta la coincidencia.</p><p>La <em>Dial&#233;ctica de la dependencia</em> (1973) de Ruy Mauro Marini identific&#243; el mecanismo que conecta estos dos hechos. En las econom&#237;as dependientes, el capital local enfrenta una desventaja estructural frente a la superioridad tecnol&#243;gica de las empresas extranjeras. La compensa a trav&#233;s de lo que Marini llam&#243; superexplotaci&#243;n del trabajo: la intensificaci&#243;n del trabajo m&#225;s all&#225; de sus l&#237;mites normales, la extensi&#243;n de la jornada laboral y la reducci&#243;n de los salarios por debajo del valor de la fuerza de trabajo misma &#8212; no solo la extracci&#243;n de plusvalor, sino tambi&#233;n la compresi&#243;n de los salarios por debajo de lo que los trabajadores necesitan para reproducirse. La superexplotaci&#243;n magnifica el excedente extra&#237;do. Pero este excedente ampliado no se reinvierte para aumentar la capacidad productiva. Porque la producci&#243;n dependiente est&#225; orientada hacia los mercados externos antes que hacia el consumo dom&#233;stico de los trabajadores &#8212; quienes son simult&#225;neamente los productores primarios y los consumidores sistem&#225;ticamente excluidos &#8212;, el circuito del capital en la periferia separa la producci&#243;n de la realizaci&#243;n del valor. El excedente encuentra su salida en las exportaciones y en el consumo suntuario de las clases que lo apropian, no en la reproducci&#243;n ampliada de la econom&#237;a dom&#233;stica. Los salarios comprimidos por la superexplotaci&#243;n no pueden sostener un mercado interno, y el excedente magnificado por la superexplotaci&#243;n no financia la inversi&#243;n productiva. Ambos mecanismos se refuerzan mutuamente en un bucle autorreproductor que nuestros datos registran a lo largo de treinta a&#241;os.</p><p><em>Figura 6. Dependencia Estructural y Utilizaci&#243;n Productiva del Excedente</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8fH5!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc690d375-7396-443e-89bd-d283b884e4d6_3274x2073.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8fH5!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc690d375-7396-443e-89bd-d283b884e4d6_3274x2073.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8fH5!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc690d375-7396-443e-89bd-d283b884e4d6_3274x2073.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8fH5!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc690d375-7396-443e-89bd-d283b884e4d6_3274x2073.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8fH5!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc690d375-7396-443e-89bd-d283b884e4d6_3274x2073.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8fH5!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc690d375-7396-443e-89bd-d283b884e4d6_3274x2073.png" width="3274" height="2073" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/c690d375-7396-443e-89bd-d283b884e4d6_3274x2073.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:2073,&quot;width&quot;:3274,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:571697,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/191830574?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F31f8a16a-c2f4-4143-bbf1-2edadda80006_3274x2174.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8fH5!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc690d375-7396-443e-89bd-d283b884e4d6_3274x2073.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8fH5!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc690d375-7396-443e-89bd-d283b884e4d6_3274x2073.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8fH5!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc690d375-7396-443e-89bd-d283b884e4d6_3274x2073.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8fH5!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc690d375-7396-443e-89bd-d283b884e4d6_3274x2073.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Fuente: elaboraci&#243;n propia con base en datos de BM, FMI y Penn World Table. </p><p>Esto no es exclusivamente una historia latinoamericana. <em>C&#243;mo Europa subdesarroll&#243; &#193;frica</em> (1972), de Walter Rodney, mostr&#243; que la extracci&#243;n sistem&#225;tica y la desviaci&#243;n del excedente de las econom&#237;as colonizadas constituyeron el fundamento hist&#243;rico sobre el que se construyeron simult&#225;neamente tanto el desarrollo europeo como el subdesarrollo africano. Las estructuras sociales coloniales que emergieron de ese proceso &#8212; clases cuya riqueza derivaba de la extracci&#243;n de recursos y la intermediaci&#243;n antes que del desarrollo productivo &#8212; trasladaron esa misma l&#243;gica al per&#237;odo posindependencia. El ratio de Baran de Sud&#225;frica, del 41%, junto con una TSP de 0,77, refleja el peso acumulado de una formaci&#243;n de clases moldeada por esa historia. El doble drenaje, en este sentido, no es un fen&#243;meno econ&#243;mico con una dimensi&#243;n pol&#237;tica; es una construcci&#243;n pol&#237;tico-hist&#243;rica que se expresa a trav&#233;s de n&#250;meros econ&#243;micos.</p><p><em>Figura 7. Tasa de Plusvalor y Ratio de Baran por Pa&#237;s</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KWig!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffabea294-3602-44c8-a736-8e1dda25d5ba_3259x2063.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KWig!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffabea294-3602-44c8-a736-8e1dda25d5ba_3259x2063.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KWig!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffabea294-3602-44c8-a736-8e1dda25d5ba_3259x2063.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KWig!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffabea294-3602-44c8-a736-8e1dda25d5ba_3259x2063.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KWig!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffabea294-3602-44c8-a736-8e1dda25d5ba_3259x2063.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KWig!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffabea294-3602-44c8-a736-8e1dda25d5ba_3259x2063.png" width="3259" height="2063" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/fabea294-3602-44c8-a736-8e1dda25d5ba_3259x2063.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:2063,&quot;width&quot;:3259,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:610396,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/191830574?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2e8ff9bd-61bb-43be-a0e0-4517cfbb54b6_3259x2165.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KWig!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffabea294-3602-44c8-a736-8e1dda25d5ba_3259x2063.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KWig!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffabea294-3602-44c8-a736-8e1dda25d5ba_3259x2063.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KWig!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffabea294-3602-44c8-a736-8e1dda25d5ba_3259x2063.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KWig!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffabea294-3602-44c8-a736-8e1dda25d5ba_3259x2063.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Fuente: elaboraci&#243;n propia con base en datos de BM, FMI y Penn World Table. </p><p>La participaci&#243;n salarial en la Periferia Subordinada promedia el 46%, frente al 61% en las econom&#237;as occidentales avanzadas. Se extrae m&#225;s del trabajo que en el centro. Menos llega al aparato productivo que en cualquier otro lugar de la muestra. Y el atraso productivo que resulta de la baja inversi&#243;n perpet&#250;a las condiciones que hacen necesaria la superexplotaci&#243;n &#8212; cerrando el c&#237;rculo que Marini describi&#243; como la dial&#233;ctica de la dependencia.</p><h2>Una clase sin proyecto nacional</h2><p>Las explicaciones est&#225;ndar &#8212; debilidad institucional, incertidumbre pol&#237;tica, climas de negocios desfavorables &#8212; tratan los s&#237;ntomas como si fueran causas. Los datos muestran un patr&#243;n de clase, y ese patr&#243;n tiene una l&#243;gica.</p><p>Baran document&#243; ad&#243;nde va el excedente cuando no se destina a la inversi&#243;n productiva. Los monopolios extranjeros que operan en pa&#237;ses subdesarrollados no reinvierten sus ganancias en el pa&#237;s: &#8220;la parte de la que los consorcios monopolistas se apoderan en mayor medida no se utiliza para fines productivos&#8221;. No se reinvierte en sus propias empresas ni sirve para desarrollar otras.&#8221; Lo que no fluye al exterior &#8220;se usa de manera casi id&#233;ntica a como lo usa la aristocracia terrateniente &#8212; consumo suntuario, inmuebles urbanos y especulaci&#243;n financiera.&#8221; Y: &#8220;fuertes sumas se llevan al exterior, como protecci&#243;n contra la devaluaci&#243;n de las monedas nacionales o como reserva que asegure a sus propietarios un retiro decoroso en caso de que surjan disturbios sociales y pol&#237;ticos.&#8221; La fuga de capitales es un comportamiento racional dada la posici&#243;n estructural de la clase que la practica.</p><p>La burgues&#237;a dom&#233;stica opera con el mismo c&#225;lculo. Su acumulaci&#243;n no depende de desarrollar el aparato productivo nacional sino de intermediar la extracci&#243;n de recursos, gestionar la inversi&#243;n extranjera y administrar los circuitos financieros a trav&#233;s de los cuales el excedente sale. Bambirra mostr&#243; que esto no era mala suerte ni pol&#237;tica equivocada sino el resultado estructural de c&#243;mo el capitalismo fue insertado en Am&#233;rica Latina desde el comienzo. Las clases propietarias que emergieron de esa historia no tienen ning&#250;n inter&#233;s org&#225;nico en el desarrollo productivo nacional &#8212; tienen un inter&#233;s org&#225;nico en las condiciones que hacen posible su acumulaci&#243;n existente: las condiciones de la dependencia.</p><p>Por eso, el desarrollo asociado ha producido el mismo resultado a lo largo de distintos ciclos pol&#237;ticos. El 28% de Argentina, el 36% de M&#233;xico y el 34% de Colombia no son consecuencia de malas decisiones pol&#237;ticas. Son consecuencia de tratar como sujeto del desarrollo a una clase cuyo poder descansa en la combinaci&#243;n de dominancia dom&#233;stica y subordinaci&#243;n internacional que el desarrollo disolver&#237;a. Keynes observ&#243;, desde una posici&#243;n pol&#237;tica enteramente diferente, que el capital responde al c&#225;lculo fr&#237;o de la ventaja a corto plazo antes que a los proyectos nacionales. En la periferia, ese c&#225;lculo va en contra de la reinversi&#243;n productiva con una consistencia que ninguna estructura de incentivos ha logrado alterar.</p><div><hr></div><h2>El Estado y el excedente</h2><p>Los datos tambi&#233;n muestran el otro lado. Bajo diferentes configuraciones pol&#237;ticas, el excedente ha sido redirigido. Lo que separa las trayectorias en la cima de nuestra distribuci&#243;n de las del fondo no son los recursos, la geograf&#237;a ni la dotaci&#243;n. Es el grado en que el Estado ha desarrollado la capacidad de imponer una l&#243;gica diferente de asignaci&#243;n del excedente &#8212; y las condiciones sociales e hist&#243;ricas que hicieron posible o clausuraron esa capacidad.</p><p>Samir Amin llam&#243; a esto desconexi&#243;n: no la retirada de la econom&#237;a mundial, sino la subordinaci&#243;n de las relaciones econ&#243;micas externas a prioridades de desarrollo definidas internamente. El concepto opera simult&#225;neamente como diagn&#243;stico y como orientaci&#243;n &#8212; nombra lo que los casos exitosos tienen en com&#250;n e identifica la condici&#243;n estructural que el desarrollo aut&#243;nomo requiere. Donde los Estados han retenido o construido instrumentos institucionales para condicionar el uso que el capital hace de sus ganancias &#8212; banca p&#250;blica, regulaci&#243;n de flujos de capital, pol&#237;tica industrial estrat&#233;gica, propiedad p&#250;blica en sectores clave &#8212; el excedente ha alcanzado consistentemente tasas de inversi&#243;n productiva m&#225;s altas. El marco que estamos desarrollando capta esto a trav&#233;s del &#237;ndice de Capacidad Mediadora del Estado, que operacionaliza el grado en que las instituciones estatales pueden actuar con relativa autonom&#237;a frente a los intereses inmediatos de las fracciones dominantes. Una autonom&#237;a que nunca viene dada por el dise&#241;o institucional sino conquistada a trav&#233;s de las configuraciones espec&#237;ficas de fuerzas sociales que producen momentos hist&#243;ricos particulares.</p><p>La Semiperiferia Disputada &#8212; Brasil, India, Sud&#225;frica &#8212; ocupa el terreno anal&#237;ticamente m&#225;s significativo precisamente porque demuestra que el resultado no est&#225; predeterminado. Brasil con el 42%, India con el 66%: no son accidentales. Reflejan la supervivencia parcial de instrumentos estatales de desarrollo junto con las persistentes restricciones de la inserci&#243;n perif&#233;rica. Estas econom&#237;as tienen suficiente capacidad institucional para redirigir el excedente de manera diferente, pero no suficiente para hacerlo de manera consistente &#8212; atrapadas entre las posibilidades que abre su aparato estatal y las configuraciones de clase que las estrechan. Esa tensi&#243;n no es una fase transitoria en camino a una resoluci&#243;n. Es la condici&#243;n permanente de esta posici&#243;n en la jerarqu&#237;a, donde el equilibrio de fuerzas de clase permanece genuinamente abierto de maneras que no lo son en ninguno de los dos extremos.</p><p>El fracaso sistem&#225;tico de la burgues&#237;a en liderar el desarrollo productivo nacional en Am&#233;rica Latina no es un defecto de car&#225;cter ni un rasgo cultural; es la expresi&#243;n predecible de una clase cuya posici&#243;n en la jerarqu&#237;a global est&#225; organizada en torno a extraer y transferir valor antes que a expandir la base productiva de la que dependen todas las dem&#225;s posibilidades. Bambirra entendi&#243; esto no como un juicio moral sino como un an&#225;lisis estructural: una clase constituida a trav&#233;s de la dependencia no puede convertirse en el agente de su disoluci&#243;n sin dejar de ser lo que es. Esto no clausura alianzas o coaliciones con fracciones capitalistas espec&#237;ficas en condiciones espec&#237;ficas, pero coloca esas alianzas en su posici&#243;n subordinada adecuada, como instrumentos de un proyecto de desarrollo cuya direcci&#243;n y contenido social deben ser definidos por otras fuerzas.</p><p>El ratio de Baran mide, a&#241;o a a&#241;o y pa&#237;s a pa&#237;s, el resultado de estas luchas por el destino del excedente. Lo que los datos no pueden resolver es la pregunta abierta del presente: si las capacidades institucionales parciales que a&#250;n existen en varias partes del Sur Global ser&#225;n ampliadas, consolidadas o erosionadas progresivamente. Eso depende de procesos que el ratio no capta: de la organizaci&#243;n, de las coaliciones, de la inteligencia pol&#237;tica de las fuerzas que comprenden qu&#233; significan los n&#250;meros. Treinta a&#241;os de evidencia, a trav&#233;s de 36 econom&#237;as, establecen la l&#237;nea de base estructural. Lo que se construya sobre ella o contra ella, est&#225; por determinarse.</p><div><hr></div><p><em>Emiliano L&#243;pez es investigador del CONICET&#8211;Universidad Nacional de La Plata y economista jefe del Instituto de Investigaci&#243;n Tricontinental.</em></p><p></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Where Does the Surplus Go? ]]></title><description><![CDATA[Peripheral Bourgeoisies and the Politics of Disinvestment]]></description><link>https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/where-does-the-surplus-go</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/where-does-the-surplus-go</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Tricon Political Economy]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Thu, 19 Mar 2026 16:48:02 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/3629730e-facd-41ff-b74a-c84b39688e42_1440x1440.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>by Emiliano L&#243;pez</strong></p><div><hr></div><p style="text-align: justify;">Paul Baran opened <em>The Political Economy of Growth</em> (1957) with a question that most development economists still refuse to take seriously: if peripheral economies generate an economic surplus &#8212; the difference between what society produces and what it needs to reproduce itself &#8212; why does so little of it translate into productive development? The surplus exists. In many cases, it represents a substantial fraction of national income. The obstacle is not scarcity. It is what the ruling classes do with what they extract.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Baran distinguished between the actual surplus &#8212; what is in fact saved and accumulated &#8212; and the potential surplus: what an economy could accumulate if the existing social order did not squander it. That squandering takes four forms: the excessive consumption of the propertied classes, unproductive labor, the irrational organization of production, and unemployment. In underdeveloped countries, the combination is crushing. Landowners spend their rents on luxury imports and urban residences rather than on improving agricultural productivity; merchant capital circulates in usury and speculation rather than in industry; foreign monopolies repatriate profits rather than reinvest them locally. Baran documented this with empirical care: &#8220;the bulk of this surplus is not used to expand and improve productive plant and equipment.&#8221; Large portions flow abroad, are consumed conspicuously, or are absorbed by financial operations with no productive content.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Baran and Sweezy extended the argument in <em>Monopoly Capital</em> (1966): under monopoly capitalism, the surplus tends to rise as productive investment outlets contract, pushing capital toward financial rather than productive deployment. What this framework still required was a class analysis, that is, an identification of the specific social agent whose choices produce these outcomes. Vania Bambirra, writing from within the Latin American dependentist tradition, supplied it. She undermined two illusions at once: the expectation of an anti-imperialist alliance with a &#8220;progressive national bourgeoisie&#8221;, and the CEPAL developmentalist conviction that industrial capital would organically drive national transformation. Both misread the class that actually existed in Latin America. The big bourgeoisie there was not a frustrated national bourgeoisie awaiting the right conditions to invest productively. It was a class whose accumulation was constitutively articulated with imperialism &#8212; dominant domestically, subordinate internationally &#8212; whose material interests ran against the kind of development both traditions hoped it would lead.</p><h2 style="text-align: justify;">Measuring where the surplus goes</h2><p style="text-align: justify;">The Baran Ratio measures the share of the economic surplus &#8212; GDP minus total compensation of employees &#8212; that reaches gross fixed capital formation: machinery, infrastructure, equipment, and the material foundations of productive capacity. This captures something that investment-to-GDP ratios obscure: dividing investment by total output conflates the surplus controlled by capital with the wage income earned by workers. The question Baran was asking is not how much of total output a country invests, but how much of the surplus that ruling classes control gets redirected toward productive accumulation &#8212; and how much does not. The two things can move in very different directions, and, in the periphery, they do so systematically.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em><strong>Figure 1</strong>. Baran Ratio by Structural Position (1996&#8211;2023)</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yK9u!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8360ee37-516e-477b-bc4a-4bca2202b7cf_936x560.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yK9u!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8360ee37-516e-477b-bc4a-4bca2202b7cf_936x560.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yK9u!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8360ee37-516e-477b-bc4a-4bca2202b7cf_936x560.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yK9u!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8360ee37-516e-477b-bc4a-4bca2202b7cf_936x560.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yK9u!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8360ee37-516e-477b-bc4a-4bca2202b7cf_936x560.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yK9u!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8360ee37-516e-477b-bc4a-4bca2202b7cf_936x560.png" width="936" height="560" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/8360ee37-516e-477b-bc4a-4bca2202b7cf_936x560.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:560,&quot;width&quot;:936,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:66380,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/191490182?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8360ee37-516e-477b-bc4a-4bca2202b7cf_936x560.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yK9u!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8360ee37-516e-477b-bc4a-4bca2202b7cf_936x560.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yK9u!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8360ee37-516e-477b-bc4a-4bca2202b7cf_936x560.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yK9u!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8360ee37-516e-477b-bc4a-4bca2202b7cf_936x560.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yK9u!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8360ee37-516e-477b-bc4a-4bca2202b7cf_936x560.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;">Source: own elaboration using data from WB and PWT.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The global mean Baran Ratio across our 36-country sample is 50% &#8212; about half the surplus reaches productive investment. That average is less informative than what lies beneath it: a gradient that is not random, not the product of differential endowments or institutional accidents, but a structural expression of position in the global hierarchy of capital.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Over the full period 1996&#8211;2023, South Korea reinvests 70% of its surplus productively; China, 64%. But these full-period averages flatten a trajectory that has moved sharply. Since 2013 &#8212; the year China peaked at 98% and began stabilising at a new structural floor &#8212; the picture is substantially different: China has averaged 88%, South Korea 74%, India 73%. Western economies, meanwhile, have moved in the other direction. Germany averaged 67% in 1996&#8211;2012; since 2013, it has averaged only 60%. France held at 63% and has since risen to 66% &#8212; an outlier in a group that has generally seen productive reinvestment compress as financialization deepens. The United States has remained stable at around 53&#8211;54% across both periods, reflecting the particular structure of American capital accumulation. At the bottom, Latin America&#8217;s Subordinate Periphery has averaged 36% across the full period and has not meaningfully improved: Argentina moved from 25% to 32% between the two sub-periods, Mexico from 37% to 34%.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">What makes this hierarchy analytically significant is that it does not align with output per capita, resource endowment, or even nominal investment rates. It aligns with the degree to which the state has historically subordinated surplus allocation to productive ends, and, behind that, with the class configurations that made such subordination possible or foreclosed it. The correlation between the rate of surplus value and the Baran Ratio across countries is r = &#8722;0.778, with exploitation highest and productive reinvestment lowest. In the dependent nations, high exploitation and low reinvestment are not independent tendencies. They are two faces of the same class strategy.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Figure 2.</strong> Structural Profile by Position in the Global Economy</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tg9x!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1eeef6e6-90b5-4094-8240-8ad2c63567b0_818x816.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tg9x!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1eeef6e6-90b5-4094-8240-8ad2c63567b0_818x816.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tg9x!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1eeef6e6-90b5-4094-8240-8ad2c63567b0_818x816.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tg9x!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1eeef6e6-90b5-4094-8240-8ad2c63567b0_818x816.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tg9x!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1eeef6e6-90b5-4094-8240-8ad2c63567b0_818x816.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tg9x!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1eeef6e6-90b5-4094-8240-8ad2c63567b0_818x816.png" width="818" height="816" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tg9x!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1eeef6e6-90b5-4094-8240-8ad2c63567b0_818x816.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tg9x!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1eeef6e6-90b5-4094-8240-8ad2c63567b0_818x816.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tg9x!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1eeef6e6-90b5-4094-8240-8ad2c63567b0_818x816.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tg9x!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1eeef6e6-90b5-4094-8240-8ad2c63567b0_818x816.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;">Source: own elaboration using data from WB and PWT.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The radar chart makes visible what the aggregate numbers suggest but do not fully show: the structural profile of Western economies is not simply different from that of the periphery, it is constituted in relation to it. Arghiri Emmanuel&#8217;s theory of unequal exchange offers a crucial complement to the Baran Ratio. Where Marx analyzed exploitation at the point of production within a national economy, Emmanuel showed that exchange between nations with systematically different wage levels transfers value from low-wage to high-wage economies even in the absence of any explicit mechanism of coercion. The relatively lower surplus value rates in Germany and France, at 0.48 and 0.53, respectively, compared with 1.35 in Argentina and 1.73 in Peru, are not simply the result of more productive technology or stronger labour mobility in the centre. It is partly sustained by the terms on which Northern capital imports goods produced under conditions of super-exploitation in the South, capturing in the price differential a portion of the value produced under lower wage conditions. The low exploitation rate of the North and the high exploitation rate of the South are not independent phenomena &#8212; they are connected through the circuits of the world market. What Figure 2 shows as four distinct structural profiles is, from this angle, a single system with a hierarchical division of labour, surplus, and reinvestment.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Figure 3 ranks all 36 economies by their mean Baran Ratio over the period. The visual makes the regional clustering unmistakable: Latin American economies occupy the bottom of the distribution almost without exception, while East Asian and Western European economies concentrate at the top. The gradient is not a continuum &#8212; it has breaks that correspond to structural positions</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Figure 3</strong><em>. Country Ranking: Productive Surplus Utilization (1996&#8211;2023)</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!b308!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1e99353a-bb9c-4d14-ac07-1e96c3e2ae05_936x1088.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!b308!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1e99353a-bb9c-4d14-ac07-1e96c3e2ae05_936x1088.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!b308!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1e99353a-bb9c-4d14-ac07-1e96c3e2ae05_936x1088.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!b308!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1e99353a-bb9c-4d14-ac07-1e96c3e2ae05_936x1088.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!b308!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1e99353a-bb9c-4d14-ac07-1e96c3e2ae05_936x1088.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!b308!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1e99353a-bb9c-4d14-ac07-1e96c3e2ae05_936x1088.png" width="936" height="1088" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/1e99353a-bb9c-4d14-ac07-1e96c3e2ae05_936x1088.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1088,&quot;width&quot;:936,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:250062,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/191490182?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1e99353a-bb9c-4d14-ac07-1e96c3e2ae05_936x1088.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!b308!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1e99353a-bb9c-4d14-ac07-1e96c3e2ae05_936x1088.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!b308!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1e99353a-bb9c-4d14-ac07-1e96c3e2ae05_936x1088.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!b308!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1e99353a-bb9c-4d14-ac07-1e96c3e2ae05_936x1088.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!b308!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1e99353a-bb9c-4d14-ac07-1e96c3e2ae05_936x1088.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;">Source: own elaboration using data from WB and PWT.</p><h2 style="text-align: justify;"><strong>China: what the opposite looks like</strong></h2><p style="text-align: justify;">In 1996, China reinvested 29% of its surplus productively, below the Latin American mean at the time. The figure is worth holding for a moment: in the mid-1990s, Chinese workers produced a surplus that was, proportionally, less productively reinvested than in Argentina or Colombia. By 2008, the ratio had reached 60%, and by 2013, it peaked at 98% &#8212; virtually the entire surplus was redirected toward productive investment, a value unmatched in our dataset. By 2023, it had settled at 88%, still far above any comparable economy. What the trajectory describes is not simply growth but structural transformation: a threefold increase in the productive utilization of surplus over three decades, sustained across political cycles, financial crises, and shifting global conditions.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The mechanism behind this trajectory is not mysterious, but it requires careful specification. China&#8217;s Baran Ratio did not rise because of China&#8217;s transition from a socialist system to a capitalist system after the reform and openness. This is a Eurocentric explanation: all processes in the world must follow the logic of European modernity. China was not more efficient because market forces happened to favour productive investment. It rose because successive Five-Year Plans subordinated the allocation of surplus to explicit productive targets &#8212; not as technocratic exercises in resource allocation, but as instruments for integrating national value chains, developing domestic technological capacity, and progressively moving the productive structure up the ladder of complexity. Where Western economies since the 1970s channelled a growing share of surplus into financial valorization &#8212; shortening the circuit of capital, inflating asset prices, and progressively decoupling financial returns from productive activity &#8212; China&#8217;s state maintained the long circuit: surplus into productive investment, productive investment into expanded capacity, expanded capacity into a deeper integration of the national productive structure. The result is visible not only in the Baran Ratio but in the composition of Chinese exports, which moved from low-value assembly to high-complexity manufacturing over precisely the period in which the ratio climbed.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Giovanni Arrighi, in</em> Adam Smith in Beijing, attributed China&#8217;s rise to the Smithian logic of the division of labour and market expansion. What the Baran Ratio shows is something different: the Chinese trajectory is driven not by exchange but by the systematic direction of surplus toward fixed capital investment &#8212; a logic that is closer to Marx&#8217;s analysis of expanded reproduction than to Smith&#8217;s account of commercial development.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">This matters for the broader argument of this article because it illustrates what the framework that we have developed in our previous article, <em>Building Sovereignity,</em> captures through the productive dependency dimension of the SDI: the degree to which an economy controls its own productive structure, rather than occupying a subordinate position in value chains controlled from outside. China&#8217;s ascent was simultaneously a rise in the Baran Ratio and a reduction in productive dependency &#8212; the two processes are not independent. The capacity to reinvest the surplus productively and the capacity to develop an autonomous productive structure reinforce each other: investment deepens the value chain, and a deeper value chain generates the productivity gains that expand the investable surplus. This is the developmental dynamic that dependency theory predicted was possible under specific political conditions, and which the data confirms was achieved in China over three decades.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em><strong>Figure 4. Baran Ratio by Geographic Region (1996&#8211;2023)</strong></em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gSuR!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5f82e751-485a-430a-94c0-7c06a06f9a56_936x510.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gSuR!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5f82e751-485a-430a-94c0-7c06a06f9a56_936x510.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gSuR!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5f82e751-485a-430a-94c0-7c06a06f9a56_936x510.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gSuR!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5f82e751-485a-430a-94c0-7c06a06f9a56_936x510.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gSuR!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5f82e751-485a-430a-94c0-7c06a06f9a56_936x510.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gSuR!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5f82e751-485a-430a-94c0-7c06a06f9a56_936x510.png" width="936" height="510" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/5f82e751-485a-430a-94c0-7c06a06f9a56_936x510.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:510,&quot;width&quot;:936,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:188678,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/191490182?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5f82e751-485a-430a-94c0-7c06a06f9a56_936x510.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gSuR!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5f82e751-485a-430a-94c0-7c06a06f9a56_936x510.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gSuR!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5f82e751-485a-430a-94c0-7c06a06f9a56_936x510.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gSuR!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5f82e751-485a-430a-94c0-7c06a06f9a56_936x510.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gSuR!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5f82e751-485a-430a-94c0-7c06a06f9a56_936x510.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;">Source: own elaboration using data from WB and PWT</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The 2008 crisis marked a visible inflection in the regional trajectories. For Western economies, the exit from the crisis did not restore the productive circuit; it deepened its disarticulation. The response of central banks and treasuries channelled extraordinary liquidity not toward productive investment but toward a new cycle of financial expansion, initially through quantitative easing and near-zero interest rates, and subsequently through the leveraged growth of technology platforms whose valuations rest less on productive capacity than on monopoly rents over data, attention, and digital infrastructure. The interlocking of big tech valuations with financial markets &#8212; and, increasingly, with the arms industry through defence contracts and dual-use technologies &#8212; has produced a form of capital accumulation that is simultaneously highly concentrated and structurally disconnected from the production of goods and services. The internal productive chains of Western capitalism, progressively outsourced since the 1970s and never reconstructed after the crisis, cannot absorb the surplus generated by financial expansion. The result is visible in the data: Western Baran Ratios, already declining before 2008, continued to compress afterward, while the financial sector&#8217;s share of corporate profits expanded. The surplus is being reinvested &#8212; but into circuits that inflate assets rather than productive capacity.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em><strong>Figure 5. Baran Ratio Trajectories: Three Structural Patterns (1996&#8211;2023)</strong></em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZUMR!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faa06fb0d-33f9-4216-91e2-9fd96230e8ec_836x906.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZUMR!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faa06fb0d-33f9-4216-91e2-9fd96230e8ec_836x906.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZUMR!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faa06fb0d-33f9-4216-91e2-9fd96230e8ec_836x906.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZUMR!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faa06fb0d-33f9-4216-91e2-9fd96230e8ec_836x906.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZUMR!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faa06fb0d-33f9-4216-91e2-9fd96230e8ec_836x906.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZUMR!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faa06fb0d-33f9-4216-91e2-9fd96230e8ec_836x906.png" width="836" height="906" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/aa06fb0d-33f9-4216-91e2-9fd96230e8ec_836x906.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:906,&quot;width&quot;:836,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:375676,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/191490182?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faa06fb0d-33f9-4216-91e2-9fd96230e8ec_836x906.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZUMR!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faa06fb0d-33f9-4216-91e2-9fd96230e8ec_836x906.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZUMR!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faa06fb0d-33f9-4216-91e2-9fd96230e8ec_836x906.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZUMR!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faa06fb0d-33f9-4216-91e2-9fd96230e8ec_836x906.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZUMR!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faa06fb0d-33f9-4216-91e2-9fd96230e8ec_836x906.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Source: own elaboration using data from WB and PWT</p><h2 style="text-align: justify;">Latin America and the Double Drain</h2><p style="text-align: justify;">Argentina reinvests 28% of its surplus productively over the 28-year period, the lowest in the sample. Peru sits at 33%, Colombia at 34%, Mexico at 36%, and Chile at 38%. Germany averages 64% over the same period. France 64%. The United States 54%. Argentina allocates less than half of what Germany does, proportionally to the surpluses each economy generates, in a country that has spent half a century trapped in cycles of stagnation, debt, and deindustrialization. Brazil, at 42%, is the strongest performer in the region, and the gap with Argentina and Peru reflects the partial state capacity that Brazil has managed to preserve &#8212; public banking, Petrobras, BNDES &#8212; rather than any fundamental difference in class structure.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">What makes these figures structurally distinct is not only the low reinvestment rate but the combination. Argentina&#8217;s workers produce 1.35 units of surplus for every unit they earn, an exploitation rate nearly double that of German or French workers (0.48 and 0.53, respectively). Peru is more extreme still: a rate of surplus value of 1.73, meaning workers generate almost three times their own wage in surplus, while the economy directs only 33% of that surplus toward productive investment. Colombia (RSV 1.56, Baran 34%), Mexico (RSV 1.35, Baran 36%): the pattern repeats across the region with a regularity that rules out coincidence.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Ruy Mauro Marini&#8217;s <em>Dial&#233;ctica de la dependencia</em> (1973) identified the mechanism connecting these two facts. In dependent economies, local capital faces a structural disadvantage against the technological superiority of foreign firms. It compensates through what Marini called super-exploitation of labour: the intensification of work beyond its normal limits, the extension of the working day, and the reduction of wages below the value of labour power itself &#8212; not just the extraction of surplus value, but the compression of wages below what workers need to reproduce themselves. Super-exploitation magnifies the surplus extracted. But this enlarged surplus does not return to expanding productive capacity. Because dependent production is oriented toward external markets rather than the domestic consumption of workers &#8212; who are simultaneously the primary producers and the systematically excluded consumers &#8212; the circuit of capital in the periphery separates production from the realization of value. The surplus finds its outlet in exports and in the luxury consumption of the classes that appropriate it, not in expanded reproduction of the domestic economy. The wages compressed by super-exploitation cannot sustain an internal market, and the surplus magnified by super-exploitation does not fund productive investment. Both mechanisms reinforce each other in a self-reproducing loop that our data registers across thirty years.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em><strong>Figure 6. Structural Dependency and Productive Surplus Utilization</strong></em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!k8OI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F659a2f5f-965c-4b36-8f03-2032d1cef466_936x592.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!k8OI!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F659a2f5f-965c-4b36-8f03-2032d1cef466_936x592.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!k8OI!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F659a2f5f-965c-4b36-8f03-2032d1cef466_936x592.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!k8OI!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F659a2f5f-965c-4b36-8f03-2032d1cef466_936x592.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!k8OI!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F659a2f5f-965c-4b36-8f03-2032d1cef466_936x592.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!k8OI!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F659a2f5f-965c-4b36-8f03-2032d1cef466_936x592.png" width="936" height="592" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/659a2f5f-965c-4b36-8f03-2032d1cef466_936x592.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:592,&quot;width&quot;:936,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:145651,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/191490182?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F659a2f5f-965c-4b36-8f03-2032d1cef466_936x592.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!k8OI!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F659a2f5f-965c-4b36-8f03-2032d1cef466_936x592.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!k8OI!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F659a2f5f-965c-4b36-8f03-2032d1cef466_936x592.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!k8OI!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F659a2f5f-965c-4b36-8f03-2032d1cef466_936x592.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!k8OI!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F659a2f5f-965c-4b36-8f03-2032d1cef466_936x592.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;">Source: own elaboration using data from WB and PWT</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em><strong>Figure 7. Rate of Surplus Value and Baran Ratio by Country</strong></em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DMJ_!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb21c6ea0-2340-4364-b885-8e388eb1c2dd_936x596.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DMJ_!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb21c6ea0-2340-4364-b885-8e388eb1c2dd_936x596.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DMJ_!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb21c6ea0-2340-4364-b885-8e388eb1c2dd_936x596.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DMJ_!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb21c6ea0-2340-4364-b885-8e388eb1c2dd_936x596.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DMJ_!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb21c6ea0-2340-4364-b885-8e388eb1c2dd_936x596.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DMJ_!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb21c6ea0-2340-4364-b885-8e388eb1c2dd_936x596.png" width="936" height="596" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/b21c6ea0-2340-4364-b885-8e388eb1c2dd_936x596.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:596,&quot;width&quot;:936,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:161373,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/191490182?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb21c6ea0-2340-4364-b885-8e388eb1c2dd_936x596.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DMJ_!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb21c6ea0-2340-4364-b885-8e388eb1c2dd_936x596.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DMJ_!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb21c6ea0-2340-4364-b885-8e388eb1c2dd_936x596.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DMJ_!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb21c6ea0-2340-4364-b885-8e388eb1c2dd_936x596.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DMJ_!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb21c6ea0-2340-4364-b885-8e388eb1c2dd_936x596.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;">Source: own elaboration using data from WB and PWT</p><p style="text-align: justify;">This is not exclusively a Latin American story. Walter Rodney&#8217;s <em>How Europe Underdeveloped Africa</em> (1972) showed that the systematic extraction and misdirection of surplus from colonised economies was the historical foundation on which both European development and African underdevelopment were simultaneously constructed. The colonial social structures that emerged from that process &#8212; classes whose wealth derived from resource extraction and intermediation rather than productive development &#8212; carried the same logic into the post-independence period. South Africa&#8217;s Baran Ratio of 41%, alongside an RSV of 0.77, registers the accumulated weight of a class formation shaped by that history. The Double Drain, in this sense, is not an economic phenomenon with a political dimension; it is a political-historical construction that expresses itself through economic numbers.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The wage share across the Subordinate Periphery averages 46%, compared to 61% in advanced Western economies. More is taken from labour than in the centre. Less reaches the productive apparatus than anywhere else in the sample. And the productive backwardness that results from low investment perpetuates the conditions that make super-exploitation necessary &#8212; closing the circle that Marini described as the dialectic of dependency.</p><h2 style="text-align: justify;">A class without a national project</h2><p style="text-align: justify;">The standard explanations &#8212; institutional weakness, policy uncertainty, unfavourable business climates &#8212; treat symptoms as if they were causes. The data shows a class pattern, and the class pattern has a logic.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Baran documented where the surplus goes when it does not go into productive investment. Foreign monopolies operating in underdeveloped countries, he showed, do not reinvest their profits locally: &#8220;that portion of which the monopolist combines takes the largest share is not used for productive purposes. It is not reinvested in their own enterprises, nor does it serve to develop others.&#8221; What does not flow abroad &#8220;is used in almost the same way as the landowning aristocracy uses it &#8212; luxury consumption, urban real estate, and financial speculation. And: &#8220;strong sums are taken abroad, held as protection against currency devaluation or as a reserve to ensure a decent retirement in case of social and political disturbances.&#8221; Capital flight is rational behavior given the structural position of the class that practises it.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The domestic bourgeoisie operates by the same calculus. Its accumulation does not depend on developing the national productive apparatus but on intermediating resource extraction, brokering foreign investment, and managing the financial circuits through which surplus exits. Bambirra showed this was not bad luck or misguided policy but the structural outcome of how capitalism was inserted into Latin America from the beginning. The propertied classes that emerged from that history have no organic interest in productive national development &#8212; they have an organic interest in the conditions that make their existing accumulation possible: the conditions of dependency.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">This is why<em> associated development </em>has produced the same result across different political cycles. Argentina&#8217;s 28%, Mexico&#8217;s 36%, and Colombia&#8217;s 34% are not the consequence of bad policy choices. They are the consequence of treating as a subject of development a class whose power rests on the combination of domestic dominance and international subordination that development would dissolve. Keynes observed, from a different political position entirely, that capital responds to the cold calculation of short-term advantage rather than to national projects. In the periphery, that calculation runs against productive reinvestment with a consistency that no incentive structure has managed to disrupt.</p><h2 style="text-align: justify;">The state and the surplus</h2><p style="text-align: justify;">The data also shows the other side. Under different political configurations, the surplus has been redirected. What separates the trajectories at the top of our distribution from those at the bottom is not resources, geography, or endowment. It is the degree to which the state has developed the capacity to impose a different logic of surplus allocation &#8212; and the social and historical conditions that made that capacity possible or foreclosed it.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Samir Amin called this <em>delinking</em>: not withdrawal from the world economy, but the subordination of external economic relations to internally defined developmental priorities. The concept operates simultaneously as a diagnosis and as an orientation &#8212; it names what successful cases have in common and identifies the structural condition that autonomous development requires. Where states have retained or built institutional instruments to condition how capital uses its earnings &#8212; public banking, capital flow regulation, strategic industrial policy, public ownership in commanding sectors &#8212; the surplus has consistently reached productive investment at higher rates. The framework that we are developing captures this through the State Mediating Capacity index, which operationalises the degree to which state institutions can act with relative autonomy from the immediate interests of the dominant fractions. An autonomy that is never given by institutional design but won through the specific configurations of social forces that particular historical moments produce.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The Contested Semi-Periphery &#8212; Brazil, India, South Africa &#8212; occupies the most analytically significant terrain precisely because it demonstrates that the outcome is not predetermined. Brazil at 42%, India at 66%: these are not accidental. They reflect the partial survival of developmental state instruments alongside the persistent constraints of peripheral insertion. These economies have enough institutional capacity to redirect the surplus differently, yet not enough to do so consistently &#8212; caught between the possibilities their state apparatus opens and the class configurations that narrow them. That tension is not a transitional phase on the way to resolution. It is the permanent condition of this position in the hierarchy, where the balance of class forces remains genuinely open in ways it is not at either extreme.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The bourgeoisie&#8217;s systematic failure to lead productive national development in Latin America is not a character defect or a cultural trait; it is the predictable expression of a class whose position in the global hierarchy is organised around extracting and transferring value rather than expanding the productive basis on which all other possibilities depend. Bambirra understood this not as a moral judgment but as a structural analysis: a class constituted through dependency cannot become the agent of its dissolution without ceasing to be what it is. This does not foreclose alliances or coalitions with specific capitalist fractions under specific conditions, but it places those alliances in their proper subordinate position &#8212; as instruments of a developmental project whose direction and social content must be defined by other forces if it is to be defined at all.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The Baran Ratio measures, year by year and country by country, the outcome of these struggles over the destination of the surplus. What the data cannot resolve is the open question of the present: whether the partial institutional capacities that still exist in parts of the Global South will be expanded, consolidated, or progressively eroded. That depends on processes the ratio does not capture: on organisation, on coalition, on the political intelligence of forces that understand what the numbers mean. Thirty years of evidence across 36 economies establishes the structural baseline. What gets built on top of it, or against it, remains to be determined.</p><div><hr></div><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Emiliano L&#243;pez is a researcher at CONICET&#8211;Universidad Nacional de La Plata and Chief Economist at Tricontinental: Institute for Social Research.</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>.</em></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[El mapa de la dependencia y los mecanismos que trascienden las fronteras nacionales]]></title><description><![CDATA[La dependencia es un factor estructural que condiciona los proyectos soberanos de los pa&#237;ses del Sur Global. Nos planteamos aqu&#237; la necesidad de medirla en m&#250;ltiples dimensiones. Para pensar soluciones, debemos pensar en di&#225;gnosticos precisos.]]></description><link>https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/el-mapa-de-la-dependencia-y-los-mecanismos</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/el-mapa-de-la-dependencia-y-los-mecanismos</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Tricon Political Economy]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Thu, 05 Mar 2026 16:42:22 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/419057f1-612b-4d5f-8951-43d180b2a0be_1440x1440.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p></p><p><em>Por Emiliano L&#243;pez y Facundo Barrera Insua</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Nuestra nota anterior reconstruy&#243; la teor&#237;a marxista de la dependencia como piedra angular de una econom&#237;a pol&#237;tica tricontinental. Ese es el fundamento te&#243;rico. Esta nota construye la arquitectura emp&#237;rica.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Si la dependencia es real, entonces debe ser medible. Sin embargo, la econom&#237;a convencional ofrece conceptos e instrumentos inadecuados para medirla. El PIB per c&#225;pita, los ratios de deuda y los saldos de cuenta corriente no capturan la estructura multidimensional de subordinaci&#243;n descrita por la teor&#237;a de la dependencia, que opera a trav&#233;s del comercio, la tecnolog&#237;a, las finanzas, la producci&#243;n, las redes globales y la distribuci&#243;n del excedente.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Tres enigmas ilustran este punto. Chile tiene un d&#233;ficit fiscal manejable y un ingreso per c&#225;pita que lo sit&#250;a entre los pa&#237;ses de &#8220;renta alta&#8221; y, sin embargo, presenta uno de los &#205;ndices de Dependencia Estructural (IDE) m&#225;s elevados del mundo. Brasil es la d&#233;cima econom&#237;a mundial, pero es m&#225;s subordinada que Corea del Sur. India ha construido un sector de servicios tecnol&#243;gicos reconocido a nivel global, pero registra una dependencia tecnol&#243;gica mayor que la de Brasil.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Las instituciones convencionales no pueden ver estas contradicciones porque su marco anal&#237;tico no se los permite. Las consultas del Art&#237;culo IV del FMI elogian sistem&#225;ticamente a Chile por su &#8220;estabilidad macroecon&#243;mica&#8221; y sus &#8220;s&#243;lidas instituciones&#8221;, mientras que nuestro &#237;ndice lo sit&#250;a en el rango perif&#233;rico de dependencia estructural, con puntuaciones elevadas en m&#250;ltiples dimensiones. Per&#250; y Colombia, que el Banco Mundial suele citar como casos de &#233;xito reformista con &#8220;entornos de negocios positivos&#8221;, caen en los rangos perif&#233;rico e hiperperif&#233;rico. Corea del Sur, un pa&#237;s que supuestamente se gradu&#243; de la periferia, miembro de la OCDE y duod&#233;cima econom&#237;a mundial, registra un IDE medio de 0,390, bien por debajo del umbral perif&#233;rico pero todav&#237;a lejos de los centros hegem&#243;nicos. El instrumental convencional no puede explicar por qu&#233; un pa&#237;s con Samsung y Hyundai no ha alcanzado la autonom&#237;a estructural; su puntuaci&#243;n de dependencia en las Redes Globales de Producci&#243;n o en las Cadenas Globales de Valor (0,678) se sit&#250;a entre las m&#225;s altas de la muestra, lo que revela que la escala corporativa no equivale a la centralidad sist&#233;mica. Al contrario, como veremos, nuestro marco puede explicarlo porque no mide el tama&#241;o de las empresas sino la posici&#243;n de la econom&#237;a dentro de las redes globales de extracci&#243;n de valor. Los rankings de <em>Doing Business</em>, el &#205;ndice de Desarrollo Humano y el PIB per c&#225;pita en paridad de poder adquisitivo ocultan, en buena medida, las asimetr&#237;as porque miden s&#237;ntomas y no la estructura condicionante de nuestros pa&#237;ses.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Una econom&#237;a pol&#237;tica tricontinental no puede permanecer en el nivel de la mera denuncia te&#243;rica. Debe producir instrumentos anal&#237;ticos capaces de distinguir entre econom&#237;as que aprovechan las condiciones multipolares para construir una autonom&#237;a genuina y aquellas en las que los mecanismos de dependencia persisten o se intensifican pese a las posibilidades que la coyuntura puede albergar. Lo que sigue es la construcci&#243;n y aplicaci&#243;n del IDE, una medida compuesta que captura la dependencia en seis dimensiones y se aplica a 31 pa&#237;ses durante 28 a&#241;os (1996&#8211;2023). El resultado es una cartograf&#237;a de la jerarqu&#237;a global, construida a partir de 856 observaciones.</p><h2>Las seis cadenas: &#191;c&#243;mo construimos el IDE?</h2><p style="text-align: justify;">La teor&#237;a cl&#225;sica de la dependencia postulaba que la subordinaci&#243;n perif&#233;rica no opera mediante un &#250;nico mecanismo. El an&#225;lisis de Marini del circuito dependiente del capital (D&#8211;M&#8230;P&#8230;M&#8217;&#8211;D&#8217;) ha mostrado que el capital global ejerce una sobredeterminaci&#243;n en cada fase del ciclo de acumulaci&#243;n, desde la formaci&#243;n inicial de capital hasta la producci&#243;n y, finalmente, la realizaci&#243;n y apropiaci&#243;n del plusvalor. Traducimos esta intuici&#243;n en un marco de medici&#243;n. Cada una de las seis dimensiones del IDE corresponde a una fase espec&#237;fica del circuito y captura un mecanismo distinto que limita la autonom&#237;a.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Con respecto a la primera fase del ciclo (D-M), presentamos dos dimensiones. La dependencia tecnol&#243;gica se pregunta: &#191;Se innova o se importa tecnolog&#237;a? La Cuarta Revoluci&#243;n Industrial ha creado nuevas jerarqu&#237;as de capacidad innovadora en las que los pa&#237;ses perif&#233;ricos enfrentan una exclusi&#243;n sistem&#225;tica de la investigaci&#243;n, el dise&#241;o y la gobernanza de los sistemas tecnol&#243;gicos. El problema no es la importaci&#243;n de maquinaria en s&#237;, sino las barreras estructurales al desarrollo tecnol&#243;gico aut&#243;nomo que reproducen las relaciones centro-periferia en formas novedosas. Medimos en qu&#233; medida la estructura productiva de una econom&#237;a permanece sesgada hacia actividades primarias en lugar de actividades tecnol&#243;gicamente intensivas, y qu&#233; proporci&#243;n del valor incorporado en sus exportaciones proviene de la innovaci&#243;n extranjera.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">La dependencia financiera mide la posici&#243;n de una econom&#237;a dentro de lo que Bonizzi, Kaltenbrunner y Powell denominaron &#8220;financiarizaci&#243;n subordinada&#8221;: su integraci&#243;n en los sistemas financieros globales desde una posici&#243;n de desventaja estructural. La jerarqu&#237;a de divisas que sit&#250;a al d&#243;lar en el v&#233;rtice y a las monedas perif&#233;ricas en la base permite la extracci&#243;n de lo que Musthaq denomina &#8220;nueva renta imperialista&#8221;, as&#237; como la apropiaci&#243;n del excedente mediante arbitraje financiero que se desarrolla como resultado del estatus subordinado de las monedas perif&#233;ricas. Esta es la dimensi&#243;n m&#225;s compleja de nuestro &#237;ndice, y requiere m&#250;ltiples indicadores que van desde el grado de propiedad extranjera de activos dom&#233;sticos y la composici&#243;n de los pasivos externos, hasta la volatilidad del tipo de cambio y el grado en que la deuda soberana debe denominarse en divisas extranjeras. Un componente merece menci&#243;n especial: el &#205;ndice de Desviaci&#243;n del Tipo de Cambio, que mide la volatilidad cambiaria como mecanismo de profundizaci&#243;n de la posici&#243;n perif&#233;rica.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">En la segunda fase del ciclo (M...P...M&#8217;), distinguiremos dos dimensiones: la dependencia productiva y la de red. La primera captura las restricciones a la acumulaci&#243;n aut&#243;noma y es, como veremos, la dimensi&#243;n que distingue con mayor n&#237;tidez a las econom&#237;as que han transformado su posici&#243;n estructural de aquellas que no lo han hecho. El problema va mucho m&#225;s all&#225; del &#8220;atraso tecnol&#243;gico&#8221;. Incluso pa&#237;ses que han alcanzado un desarrollo industrial significativo contin&#250;an exhibiendo una alta dependencia productiva porque las condiciones en que opera la industria perif&#233;rica &#8212;integraci&#243;n subordinada en redes de producci&#243;n transnacionales, determinaci&#243;n externa de las trayectorias tecnol&#243;gicas, presiones financieras que desv&#237;an el excedente de la inversi&#243;n fija&#8212; limitan estructuralmente la acumulaci&#243;n aut&#243;noma. Rastreamos la competitividad por costos, las brechas de productividad respecto a la frontera global, el grado de compresi&#243;n salarial y, de manera crucial, la deficiencia inversora: si una econom&#237;a est&#225; canalizando su excedente hacia la expansi&#243;n de su aparato productivo o lo est&#225; desviando hacia otro lado. Este &#250;ltimo indicador resultar&#225; decisivo. Como mostrar&#225;n los datos, la distinci&#243;n entre econom&#237;as que invierten y las que desinvierten es la l&#237;nea de fractura m&#225;s n&#237;tida en la jerarqu&#237;a global.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Respecto a la dependencia de la red (en las Redes Globales de Producci&#243;n), nos preguntamos si los pa&#237;ses son nodos centrales o ap&#233;ndices de la red. Los pa&#237;ses perif&#233;ricos proveen insumos y servicios de ensamblaje, mientras que los pa&#237;ses centrales controlan las actividades de alto valor y el desarrollo tecnol&#243;gico. Lo medimos a trav&#233;s de la asimetr&#237;a en la posici&#243;n de un pa&#237;s dentro de las redes comerciales globales y de su capacidad para funcionar como intermediario en lugar de nodo terminal. La mayor&#237;a de los pa&#237;ses de nuestra muestra permanecen subordinados dentro de las redes comerciales globales, independientemente de sus dem&#225;s caracter&#237;sticas. La promesa de que &#8220;insertarse en las cadenas globales de valor&#8221; promover&#237;a la convergencia no se materializ&#243;; la inserci&#243;n reproduce la jerarqu&#237;a.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Los mecanismos que drenan el excedente de la periferia no aparecen, en ocasiones, como un saqueo visible. Emmanuel demostr&#243; que el intercambio desigual opera a trav&#233;s de transacciones de mercado aparentemente iguales: cuando los diferenciales salariales entre pa&#237;ses exceden los diferenciales de productividad, una hora de trabajo metropolitano se intercambia por m&#250;ltiples horas de trabajo perif&#233;rico, lo que crea transferencias sistem&#225;ticas de valor incluso cuando las mercanc&#237;as se comercian a precios equivalentes.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Finalmente, en la tercera fase del ciclo (D&#8217;&#8211;D&#8217;&#8216;), distinguimos entre la dependencia distributiva y la comercial. La dependencia distributiva operacionaliza concretamente estos mecanismos de apropiaci&#243;n del excedente. Rastreamos la salida de excedente mediante la repatriaci&#243;n de ganancias, las transferencias de intereses al exterior y la brecha entre el valor que un pa&#237;s crea en los mercados globales y el valor que captura en el mercado interno. Tambi&#233;n medimos el d&#233;ficit de reproducci&#243;n social: cu&#225;nto se aleja el gasto p&#250;blico en salud, educaci&#243;n y protecci&#243;n social de los niveles necesarios para sostener la fuerza de trabajo. Los patrones contempor&#225;neos de superexplotaci&#243;n van m&#225;s all&#225; de la tradicional compresi&#243;n salarial para abarcar lo que Marini identific&#243; como las tres t&#225;cticas del capital perif&#233;rico: aumentar la intensidad laboral, extender la jornada de trabajo y comprimir los salarios reales por debajo del valor de la fuerza de trabajo, es decir, salarios insuficientes para reproducir la capacidad productiva de los trabajadores, rasgo estructural del ciclo dependiente del capital.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">La dependencia comercial responde a la pregunta: &#191;qu&#233; venden y qu&#233; compran los pa&#237;ses? Esta dimensi&#243;n captura el control externo sobre la fase de realizaci&#243;n del ciclo del capital, en la que la realizaci&#243;n del valor depende de condiciones de mercado determinadas por las econom&#237;as centrales. Va m&#225;s all&#225; del enfoque cl&#225;sico de la concentraci&#243;n de materias primas. Un pa&#237;s puede alcanzar una aparente diversificaci&#243;n exportadora mientras permanece atrapado en segmentos de bajo valor de las redes de producci&#243;n globales, lo que la literatura reciente denomina la &#8220;periferializaci&#243;n de las actividades industriales&#8221;. Esto implica que el crecimiento de las exportaciones manufactureras coexiste con la exclusi&#243;n sistem&#225;tica de la creaci&#243;n estrat&#233;gica de valor. Rastreamos qu&#233; proporci&#243;n de las exportaciones de un pa&#237;s corresponde a materias primas y cu&#225;l a bienes de alta tecnolog&#237;a, cu&#225;nto del valor agregado de sus exportaciones es dom&#233;stico y cu&#225;n dependiente es su aparato productivo de bienes de capital importados.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Una nota metodol&#243;gica. Las seis dimensiones se agregan en una &#250;nica puntuaci&#243;n compuesta mediante un m&#233;todo de ponderaci&#243;n que preserva la consistencia te&#243;rica: valores m&#225;s altos siempre indican una mayor dependencia. Todos los indicadores se normalizan a una escala com&#250;n, asegurando que el &#237;ndice oscile entre 0 (m&#225;xima autonom&#237;a) y 1 (m&#225;xima dependencia). Un pa&#237;s con puntuaci&#243;n de 0,20 mantiene un control sustancial sobre su proceso de acumulaci&#243;n; uno con puntuaci&#243;n de 0,80 tiene ese proceso determinado, en la mayor&#237;a de las dimensiones, desde afuera. La metodolog&#237;a detallada, incluida la construcci&#243;n de variables, los procedimientos de agregaci&#243;n y las pruebas de robustez, se presentar&#225; en el art&#237;culo acad&#233;mico pr&#243;ximo a su publicaci&#243;n. Nuestro conjunto de datos se nutre de TiVA-OCDE, BACI, Penn World Table, FMI, Banco Mundial (WDI) y bases de datos de la UNCTAD. La muestra comprende 31 pa&#237;ses a lo largo de 28 a&#241;os y tres grandes crisis.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Tabla 1. Dimensiones del IDE y de la operacionalizaci&#243;n.</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!TPwz!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc43f2af7-613c-4452-9a93-57b72c49e9a9_1012x609.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!TPwz!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc43f2af7-613c-4452-9a93-57b72c49e9a9_1012x609.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!TPwz!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc43f2af7-613c-4452-9a93-57b72c49e9a9_1012x609.png 848w, 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!TPwz!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc43f2af7-613c-4452-9a93-57b72c49e9a9_1012x609.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!TPwz!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc43f2af7-613c-4452-9a93-57b72c49e9a9_1012x609.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!TPwz!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc43f2af7-613c-4452-9a93-57b72c49e9a9_1012x609.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!TPwz!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc43f2af7-613c-4452-9a93-57b72c49e9a9_1012x609.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Fuente: elaboraci&#243;n propia.</em></p><h2>Cuatro mundos en la econom&#237;a global</h2><p style="text-align: justify;">El IDE medio global es de 0,494, lo que indica que la mayor&#237;a de los pa&#237;ses exhibe una dependencia moderada. Sin embargo, la media oculta una arquitectura de desigualdad dram&#225;tica. Una desviaci&#243;n est&#225;ndar de 0,201 refleja un mundo estructurado en posiciones cualitativamente diferentes, no uno que converge hacia un est&#225;ndar com&#250;n.</p><p style="text-align: center;"><em>Figura 1. Ranking de pa&#237;ses &#8212; &#205;ndice de Dependencia Estructural, promedio 1996&#8211;2023.</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!r0A_!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7ee353cf-f5b9-421a-adea-1059db1099b9_780x1062.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!r0A_!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7ee353cf-f5b9-421a-adea-1059db1099b9_780x1062.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!r0A_!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7ee353cf-f5b9-421a-adea-1059db1099b9_780x1062.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!r0A_!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7ee353cf-f5b9-421a-adea-1059db1099b9_780x1062.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!r0A_!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7ee353cf-f5b9-421a-adea-1059db1099b9_780x1062.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!r0A_!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7ee353cf-f5b9-421a-adea-1059db1099b9_780x1062.png" width="780" height="1062" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/7ee353cf-f5b9-421a-adea-1059db1099b9_780x1062.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1062,&quot;width&quot;:780,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:218899,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/190013120?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7ee353cf-f5b9-421a-adea-1059db1099b9_780x1062.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!r0A_!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7ee353cf-f5b9-421a-adea-1059db1099b9_780x1062.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!r0A_!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7ee353cf-f5b9-421a-adea-1059db1099b9_780x1062.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!r0A_!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7ee353cf-f5b9-421a-adea-1059db1099b9_780x1062.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!r0A_!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7ee353cf-f5b9-421a-adea-1059db1099b9_780x1062.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: center;"><em>Fuente: elaboraci&#243;n propia con base en datos del Banco Mundial, el Penn World Table, BACI y TiVA-OCDE.</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Los resultados emp&#237;ricos se organizan en las cuatro configuraciones que mapeamos en nuestra nota anterior, definidas no por niveles de ingreso ni por ubicaci&#243;n geogr&#225;fica, sino por la interacci&#243;n entre la dependencia estructural y la capacidad del Estado para mediarla. El IDE captura el primer eje de esa interacci&#243;n: la profundidad y la amplitud de la subordinaci&#243;n estructural. El segundo eje &#8212;la capacidad mediadora del Estado&#8212; requiere su propio &#237;ndice, que actualmente se encuentra en construcci&#243;n. Un mapeo integral de las transiciones entre cuadrantes requerir&#225; que ambos instrumentos funcionen en conjunto. Por ahora, comenzamos por los datos que ya tenemos: el plano econ&#243;mico-estructural.</p><p style="text-align: center;"><em>Figura 2. Dependencia estructural en la econom&#237;a global, 1996&#8211;2023.</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!U3Ev!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa13c9652-a83f-4364-a1ea-a3a7418da027_1070x612.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!U3Ev!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa13c9652-a83f-4364-a1ea-a3a7418da027_1070x612.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!U3Ev!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa13c9652-a83f-4364-a1ea-a3a7418da027_1070x612.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!U3Ev!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa13c9652-a83f-4364-a1ea-a3a7418da027_1070x612.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!U3Ev!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa13c9652-a83f-4364-a1ea-a3a7418da027_1070x612.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!U3Ev!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa13c9652-a83f-4364-a1ea-a3a7418da027_1070x612.png" width="1070" height="612" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/a13c9652-a83f-4364-a1ea-a3a7418da027_1070x612.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:612,&quot;width&quot;:1070,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:177636,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/190013120?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa13c9652-a83f-4364-a1ea-a3a7418da027_1070x612.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!U3Ev!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa13c9652-a83f-4364-a1ea-a3a7418da027_1070x612.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!U3Ev!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa13c9652-a83f-4364-a1ea-a3a7418da027_1070x612.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!U3Ev!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa13c9652-a83f-4364-a1ea-a3a7418da027_1070x612.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!U3Ev!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa13c9652-a83f-4364-a1ea-a3a7418da027_1070x612.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: center;"><em>Fuente: elaboraci&#243;n propia con base en el Banco Mundial, el Penn World Table, BACI y TiVA-OCDE. </em></p><p style="text-align: justify;">En el extremo del espectro, Estados Unidos registra un IDE consistentemente cercano a cero durante todo el per&#237;odo (media 0,029). Alemania se sit&#250;a m&#225;s alto, pero a&#250;n en el rango de baja dependencia (media de 0,220). Jap&#243;n, el Reino Unido y Francia se ubican en el rango semihegem&#243;nico. Sus bajas puntuaciones reflejan un posicionamiento imperial m&#225;s que un logro desarrollista, distinci&#243;n que trazamos en la primera nota de esta serie. Lo que aportan los datos es precisi&#243;n temporal.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">El IDE de Jap&#243;n ha aumentado significativamente a lo largo del per&#237;odo estudiado (rango: 0,086&#8211;0,520), siendo el &#250;nico gran poder de este cuadrante que muestra una dependencia creciente. La erosi&#243;n se concentra en las dimensiones tecnol&#243;gicas y financieras y refleja, al mismo tiempo, la p&#233;rdida de liderazgo manufacturero frente a China y Corea del Sur, lo que ha derivado en tres d&#233;cadas de estancamiento. Una posici&#243;n en el v&#233;rtice de la jerarqu&#237;a no es un derecho permanente. Los datos muestran que puede erosionarse.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Estados Unidos, por el contrario, muestra casi ninguna variaci&#243;n. Su autonom&#237;a es estructural, incorporada en la arquitectura del propio sistema global: la hegemon&#237;a del d&#243;lar, el control tecnol&#243;gico y la centralidad de la red. Esto no es un hallazgo que requiera interpretaci&#243;n. Es la l&#237;nea de base contra la que se mide la dependencia perif&#233;rica.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">China registra un IDE medio de 0,334 durante el per&#237;odo. Pero la posici&#243;n est&#225;tica importa menos que la trayectoria. El IDE de China cay&#243; de 0,528 a 0,164 en 28 a&#241;os. Su desviaci&#243;n est&#225;ndar se encuentra entre las m&#225;s altas de la muestra (0,129), lo que refleja no inestabilidad, sino cambio de direcci&#243;n: el desmantelamiento de la dependencia en m&#250;ltiples dimensiones simult&#225;neamente.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">La dimensi&#243;n productiva es la fuerza motriz detr&#225;s de esta transici&#243;n, con el componente de inversi&#243;n desempe&#241;ando un papel decisivo. La formaci&#243;n bruta de capital fijo de China como porcentaje del PIB ha superado de forma consistente el 40%, alcanzando picos por encima del 45%. Estos son niveles sin parang&#243;n en ninguna otra econom&#237;a de nuestra muestra. Nuestra dimensi&#243;n de dependencia productiva lo captura directamente: a medida que la tasa de inversi&#243;n de China aument&#243;, su puntuaci&#243;n de dependencia productiva disminuy&#243;, arrastrando el IDE general hacia abajo. Esto se debe a que la acumulaci&#243;n de capital fijo genera capacidades tecnol&#243;gicas, ganancias de productividad y expansi&#243;n del mercado interno, que reducen simult&#225;neamente la dependencia comercial, tecnol&#243;gica y de red. La inversi&#243;n en capacidad productiva no es solo una de las seis dimensiones. Es la palanca que mueve a las dem&#225;s.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Las condiciones para la transformaci&#243;n de China fueron hist&#243;ricamente espec&#237;ficas. Lo que los datos a&#241;aden al argumento te&#243;rico es precisi&#243;n: tasas de FBCF por encima del 40%, sostenidas durante dos d&#233;cadas, combinadas con un contenido decreciente de valor agregado extranjero en las exportaciones y una creciente captura dom&#233;stica del valor. Estos no son abstracciones. Son resultados de pol&#237;tica medibles.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">La trayectoria del IDE de Malasia muestra el dividendo a largo plazo de rechazar la condicionalidad del FMI en 1997: el control estatal preservado sobre el sistema bancario y las empresas estrat&#233;gicas se tradujo en puntuaciones de dependencia de red m&#225;s bajas que las de Tailandia, que acept&#243; el ajuste estructural. Pero la mayor apertura de Malasia al capital extranjero en la manufactura electr&#243;nica mantiene elevadas sus puntuaciones de dependencia tecnol&#243;gica, las m&#225;s altas de toda la muestra (0,946), lo cual los datos hacen visible.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Por su parte, en la periferia en disputa, los datos se vuelven m&#225;s condenatorios. En Brasil, el IDE es de 0,602, con una desviaci&#243;n est&#225;ndar de 0,043. Ese n&#250;mero merece atenci&#243;n: es la d&#233;cima econom&#237;a mundial, con la mayor base industrial de Am&#233;rica Latina y un mercado interno de 200 millones de personas. A lo largo de los &#250;ltimos 28 a&#241;os, su posici&#243;n estructural apenas ha cambiado. Esa baja variaci&#243;n a lo largo de 28 a&#241;os de datos no es estabilidad. Es un cierto grado de estancamiento.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Respecto de Argentina, el IDE es 0,763, lo que la ubica firmemente en el rango perif&#233;rico. Pero el n&#250;mero titular oculta un hallazgo m&#225;s importante. La puntuaci&#243;n de dependencia distributiva de Argentina, 0,783, se encuentra entre las m&#225;s altas de la muestra y es la dimensi&#243;n dominante de su perfil. El drenaje del excedente no es c&#237;clico. Es un rasgo estructural definitorio de la econom&#237;a y explica por qu&#233; un pa&#237;s con capacidad industrial hist&#243;rica, una fuerza de trabajo educada y abundantes recursos naturales tropieza con una crisis tras otra sin alterar su posici&#243;n en la jerarqu&#237;a.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Al mismo tiempo, el IDE de la India es de 0,562. Aqu&#237;, la explicaci&#243;n est&#225; fuertemente relacionada con la dependencia tecnol&#243;gica (0,624), que permanece alta pese a su sector de TI reconocido a nivel global. La especializaci&#243;n en servicios no ha resuelto la subordinaci&#243;n tecnol&#243;gica; ha coexistido con ella.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">En el extremo hiperperif&#233;rico (IDE por encima de 0,80), Tailandia, Colombia, Per&#250; y M&#233;xico presentan una dependencia elevada en pr&#225;cticamente todas las seis dimensiones. Chile, con un IDE medio-alto de 0,711, ocupa una posici&#243;n reveladora, precisamente porque es contraintuitiva: el estandarte de la reforma neoliberal en Am&#233;rica Latina, un pa&#237;s clasificado como de renta alta, registra un nivel de dependencia estructural superior al de Brasil e India. El &#8220;modelo&#8221; produjo simult&#225;neamente estabilidad macroecon&#243;mica y subordinaci&#243;n estructural.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">El contraste con China en la dimensi&#243;n productiva es devastador. Como hemos dicho, mientras China canaliz&#243; el excedente hacia el capital fijo a tasas superiores al 40% del PIB, las grandes econom&#237;as latinoamericanas registran tasas de inversi&#243;n entre el 15% y el 22%. Estas son insuficientes para cerrar brechas de productividad, construir capacidad industrial aut&#243;noma o desarrollar capacidades tecnol&#243;gicas end&#243;genas que reducir&#237;an la dependencia de las otras cinco dimensiones. Los pa&#237;ses de Am&#233;rica Latina tienen puntuaciones de dependencia productiva que permanecen persistentemente altas, no porque carezcan de excedente econ&#243;mico, pues lo generan, sino porque ese excedente se desv&#237;a sistem&#225;ticamente de la acumulaci&#243;n productiva. La pregunta que abordar&#225;n nuestras pr&#243;ximas notas es hacia d&#243;nde va este excedente: especulaci&#243;n financiera, repatriaci&#243;n de ganancias, consumo de lujo y fuga de capitales.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">El patr&#243;n geogr&#225;fico es inconfundible. Am&#233;rica Latina es la regi&#243;n m&#225;s dependiente de nuestra muestra. Todos los pa&#237;ses latinoamericanos del conjunto de datos, excepto Costa Rica, se sit&#250;an en el rango perif&#233;rico o hiperperif&#233;rico, y la propia Costa Rica se sit&#250;a en la banda semiperif&#233;rica superior. Esta consistencia, que persiste a pesar de diferencias significativas en tama&#241;o, dotaci&#243;n de recursos y orientaci&#243;n de pol&#237;tica, sugiere que la dependencia opera a trav&#233;s de mecanismos sist&#233;micos que trascienden las opciones de pol&#237;tica nacionales.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">La semiperiferia en disputa es donde la pregunta pol&#237;tica se vuelve m&#225;s aguda. Dentro de nuestra muestra, India y Brasil ocupan este espacio de manera m&#225;s clara: econom&#237;as con capacidad estatal significativa y grandes mercados internos cuyos puntajes de IDE permanecen, sin embargo, persistentemente altos.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Sus perfiles cuentan la historia. Brasil combina puntuaciones tecnol&#243;gicas moderadas con una elevada dependencia productiva, financiera y distributiva; la firma emp&#237;rica de una econom&#237;a cuyo excedente es drenado a trav&#233;s de los canales mismos que miden nuestra dimensi&#243;n distributiva: repatriaci&#243;n de ganancias, transferencias de intereses, captura dom&#233;stica del valor comprimida. La capacidad institucional existe. La configuraci&#243;n de clase que la redireccionar&#237;a no existe, o todav&#237;a no. A su vez, India presenta una combinaci&#243;n diferente: menor dependencia financiera, pero altas puntuaciones en productividad y tecnolog&#237;a, lo que refleja una econom&#237;a en la que el modelo de crecimiento liderado por los servicios no se ha traducido en acumulaci&#243;n industrial aut&#243;noma. En ambos casos, la pregunta es la misma: &#191;por qu&#233; la capacidad estatal coexiste con la subordinaci&#243;n estructural? El IDE identifica la restricci&#243;n. Sin embargo, no explica las elecciones pol&#237;ticas que la perpet&#250;an.</p><h2>Lo que revela cada dimensi&#243;n</h2><p style="text-align: justify;">La desagregaci&#243;n del IDE en sus seis componentes muestra c&#243;mo distintos mecanismos de dependencia operan con intensidades variables y se agrupan.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">La dependencia de la red es la restricci&#243;n m&#225;s universal, con una media de 0,624; la mayor&#237;a de los pa&#237;ses permanecen subordinados a las redes comerciales globales, independientemente de sus dem&#225;s caracter&#237;sticas. Esta es la refutaci&#243;n emp&#237;rica de la promesa de que la integraci&#243;n en las cadenas globales de valor promover&#237;a la convergencia. La dependencia productiva le sigue de cerca, con un valor de 0,525, lo que refleja restricciones generalizadas al desarrollo industrial aut&#243;nomo, incluso en pa&#237;ses con bases manufactureras significativas.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">La dependencia comercial y financiera muestran valores medios moderados (0,400 y 0,337, respectivamente), pero con alta variaci&#243;n: estas son las dimensiones donde los perfiles nacionales divergen m&#225;s n&#237;tidamente, reflejando distintas modalidades de inserci&#243;n en los mercados globales y los circuitos financieros. La dependencia tecnol&#243;gica se sit&#250;a en un nivel intermedio (0,423), mientras que la dependencia distributiva (0,423) presenta la mayor variaci&#243;n entre las dimensiones (desviaci&#243;n est&#225;ndar de 0,207), lo que refleja patrones heterog&#233;neos de apropiaci&#243;n del excedente a lo largo de la jerarqu&#237;a.</p><p style="text-align: center;"><em>Figura 3. Mapas de dependencia por dimensi&#243;n, 1996&#8211;2023.</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zgwL!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6b76ea00-ce88-415f-88fe-515f41fba38a_810x1388.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zgwL!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6b76ea00-ce88-415f-88fe-515f41fba38a_810x1388.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zgwL!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6b76ea00-ce88-415f-88fe-515f41fba38a_810x1388.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zgwL!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6b76ea00-ce88-415f-88fe-515f41fba38a_810x1388.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zgwL!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6b76ea00-ce88-415f-88fe-515f41fba38a_810x1388.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zgwL!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6b76ea00-ce88-415f-88fe-515f41fba38a_810x1388.png" width="810" height="1388" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zgwL!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6b76ea00-ce88-415f-88fe-515f41fba38a_810x1388.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zgwL!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6b76ea00-ce88-415f-88fe-515f41fba38a_810x1388.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zgwL!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6b76ea00-ce88-415f-88fe-515f41fba38a_810x1388.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zgwL!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6b76ea00-ce88-415f-88fe-515f41fba38a_810x1388.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div 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https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!uP1Y!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe4cac45f-7a35-4815-8645-fa97d207ef35_918x1598.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!uP1Y!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe4cac45f-7a35-4815-8645-fa97d207ef35_918x1598.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!uP1Y!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe4cac45f-7a35-4815-8645-fa97d207ef35_918x1598.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!uP1Y!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe4cac45f-7a35-4815-8645-fa97d207ef35_918x1598.png" width="918" height="1598" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!uP1Y!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe4cac45f-7a35-4815-8645-fa97d207ef35_918x1598.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!uP1Y!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe4cac45f-7a35-4815-8645-fa97d207ef35_918x1598.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!uP1Y!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe4cac45f-7a35-4815-8645-fa97d207ef35_918x1598.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!uP1Y!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe4cac45f-7a35-4815-8645-fa97d207ef35_918x1598.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: center;"><em>Fuente: elaboraci&#243;n propia con base en datos del Banco Mundial, el Penn World Table, BACI y TiVA-OCDE.</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Los mapas dimensionales revelan patrones geogr&#225;ficos distintos. La dependencia comercial se concentra en gran medida en los pa&#237;ses ricos en recursos naturales. La dependencia tecnol&#243;gica afecta tanto a los exportadores de recursos como a algunas econom&#237;as orientadas a la manufactura. Las dependencias financieras y de red exhiben patrones m&#225;s dispersos, lo que refleja la compleja arquitectura de la integraci&#243;n econ&#243;mica global contempor&#225;nea y el declive de la hegemon&#237;a de EE.UU. en medio de la hiperfinanciarizaci&#243;n en ese pa&#237;s y en otros del Norte Global.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">A este nivel de desagregaci&#243;n, el hallazgo central es que la dependencia nunca es unidimensional. Los pa&#237;ses rara vez presentan una dependencia de una sola dimensi&#243;n. En cambio, tiende a agruparse en dimensiones relacionadas, creando patrones sist&#233;micos de subordinaci&#243;n que se reproducen a lo largo de distintos per&#237;odos hist&#243;ricos y orientaciones pol&#237;ticas. Es precisamente por esto que nuestro marco insiste en medir las seis dimensiones simult&#225;neamente: los an&#225;lisis parciales que se centran &#250;nicamente en el comercio, las finanzas o la tecnolog&#237;a siempre subestimar&#225;n la profundidad de la restricci&#243;n. La trayectoria de China sugiere que superar estas restricciones multidimensionales requiere estrategias de transformaci&#243;n integral que aborden simult&#225;neamente la dependencia productiva, tecnol&#243;gica y de red. Esto explica por qu&#233;, a pesar de los esfuerzos sostenidos por crecer y diversificarse, la mayor&#237;a de los pa&#237;ses permanecen atrapados en posiciones subordinadas.</p><h2>Lo que los datos resuelven, y lo que dejan abierto</h2><p style="text-align: justify;">Nuestros datos resuelven algunas cuestiones. En primer lugar, la dependencia no es una met&#225;fora de los a&#241;os 1960, sino una estructura medible que persiste durante 28 a&#241;os que estudiamos, atraviesa tres crisis globales y orientaciones de pol&#237;tica nacional radicalmente diferentes. La jerarqu&#237;a del IDE, desde los centros hegem&#243;nicos hasta el extremo hiperperif&#233;rico, ha sido notablemente estable durante casi tres d&#233;cadas.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">En segundo lugar, la cuesti&#243;n que resuelven los datos es la posibilidad de la transformaci&#243;n estructural. La trayectoria de China, de 0,528 a 0,164, es la prueba. Pero la dimensi&#243;n productiva nos dice c&#243;mo ocurri&#243;: mediante inversi&#243;n sostenida en capital fijo, a tasas que ninguna econom&#237;a latinoamericana ha alcanzado, generando reducciones en cascada de la dependencia tecnol&#243;gica, comercial y de red. La palanca es identificable. Las condiciones bajo las cuales puede accionarse son espec&#237;ficas y exigentes y, claro, involucran una multiplicidad de factores.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">La tercera cuesti&#243;n es la que el IDE plantea, pero no puede responder: &#191;por qu&#233; algunas clases dominantes reinvierten el excedente en acumulaci&#243;n productiva, mientras otras lo desv&#237;an hacia las finanzas, el consumo de lujo y la fuga de capitales?</p><p style="text-align: justify;">El &#237;ndice mide esta restricci&#243;n. Sin embargo, no explica las decisiones que la reproducen. Para lograrlo, necesitamos un tipo diferente de an&#225;lisis: uno centrado en las configuraciones de clase, las coaliciones pol&#237;ticas dom&#233;sticas y los arreglos institucionales mediante los cuales se apropia del excedente. Desarrollaremos ese an&#225;lisis en la pr&#243;xima nota, siguiendo al excedente, para ver hacia d&#243;nde va.Tenemos el mapa. Ahora, seguiremos el excedente.</p><div><hr></div><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Emiliano L&#243;pez es investigador del CONICET&#8211;Universidad Nacional de La Plata y economista jefe del Instituto Tricontinental de Investigaci&#243;n Social.</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Facundo Barrera Insua es investigador del CONICET&#8211;Universidad Nacional de La Plata y economista miembro del Instituto Tricontinental de Investigaci&#243;n Social.</em></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[The dependency map and mechanisms that transcend national borders]]></title><description><![CDATA[By Emiliano L&#243;pez and Facundo Barrera Insua]]></description><link>https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/the-dependency-map-and-mechanisms</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/the-dependency-map-and-mechanisms</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Tricon Political Economy]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Thu, 05 Mar 2026 06:48:01 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9c40dd2a-e229-4b98-869c-6e416c1904af_1440x1440.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Emiliano L&#243;pez and Facundo Barrera Insua</strong></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Our previous note reconstructed Marxist dependency theory as the cornerstone of a tricontinental political economy. That was the theoretical foundation. This note builds the empirical architecture.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">If dependency is real, then it should be measurable. However, mainstream economics provides inadequate concepts and tools for measuring dependency. GDP per capita, debt ratios, and current account balances do not capture the multidimensional structure of subordination described by dependency theory, which operates across trade, technology, finance, production, global networks, and surplus distribution.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Three puzzles illustrate this point. Although Chile has a manageable fiscal deficit and per capita income that place it among &#8220;high-income&#8221; countries, it has one of the highest Structural Dependency Indexes (SDI) in the world. For its part, Brazil is the world&#8217;s tenth-largest economy, but it is more subordinate than South Korea. Finally, India has built a globally recognized technology services sector, yet it scores higher on technological dependency than Brazil.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Mainstream institutions cannot see these contradictions because they are not looking for them. For example, the IMF&#8217;s Article IV consultations routinely praise Chile for &#8220;macroeconomic stability&#8221; and &#8220;sound institutions,&#8221; yet our index places it in the peripheral range of structural dependency, with elevated scores across multiple dimensions. Peru and Colombia, which the World Bank often cites as reformist success cases with &#8220;improving business environments,&#8221; fall within the peripheral and hyper-peripheral range. South Korea, a country that supposedly graduated from the periphery, an OECD member, and the world&#8217;s twelfth-largest economy, registers a mean SDI of 0.390, well below the peripheral threshold but still far from the hegemonic centers rather than among the autonomous powers. The conventional toolkit cannot explain why a country with Samsung and Hyundai has not achieved structural autonomy, its network dependency score (0.678) remains among the highest in the sample, revealing that corporate scale does not equal systemic centrality. On the contrary, as we shall see below, our framework can explain this because it measures not the size of firms but the economy&#8217;s position within global networks of value extraction. Doing Business rankings, the Human Development Index, and per capita GDP at purchasing power parity: these indicators obscure the asymmetries because they measure symptoms, not structure.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">A tricontinental political economy cannot remain at the level of theoretical denunciation. It must produce analytical instruments capable of distinguishing between economies that exploit multipolar conditions to construct genuine autonomy and those in which dependency mechanisms persist or intensify despite a favorable conjuncture. What follows is the construction and application of the SDI: a composite measure that captures dependency across six dimensions, applied to 31 countries over 28 years (1996&#8211;2023). The result is a cartography of the global hierarchy, built from 856 country-year observations.</p><h2 style="text-align: justify;">The six chains: how we built the SDI</h2><p style="text-align: justify;">Classical dependency theory understood that peripheral subordination does not operate through a single mechanism. Marini&#8217;s analysis of the dependent capital circuit (M&#8211;C...P...C&#8217;&#8211;M&#8217;) showed that external control is exercised at every phase of the accumulation cycle, from initial capital formation to production and finally to the realization and appropriation of surplus value. We translated this insight into a measurement framework. Each of the SDI&#8217;s six dimensions corresponds to a specific phase of the circuit and captures a distinct mechanism that constrains autonomy.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Regarding the first phase of the cycle (M-C), we present two dimensions. The technological dependency question asks: Do you innovate, or do you license? The Fourth Industrial Revolution has created new hierarchies of innovation capacity in which peripheral countries face systematic exclusion from research, design, and governance of technological systems. The issue is not the import of machinery per se, but the structural barriers to autonomous technological development that reproduce center-periphery relations in novel forms. We measure the extent to which an economy&#8217;s productive structure remains biased toward primary activities rather than technology-intensive ones, and the share of the value embodied in its exports that originates in foreign innovation.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Financial dependency measures an economy&#8217;s position within what Bonizzi, Kaltenbrunner, and Powell have called &#8220;subordinate financialization&#8221;: integration into global financial systems in a position of structural disadvantage. The currency hierarchy that places the dollar at the apex and peripheral currencies at the bottom enables the extraction of what Musthaq terms &#8220;new imperialist rent,&#8221; surplus appropriation through financial arbitrage made possible by the subordinate status of peripheral monies. This is the most complex dimension of our index, requiring multiple indicators that range from the degree of foreign ownership of domestic assets and the composition of external liabilities to the volatility of the exchange rate and the extent to which sovereign debt must be denominated in foreign currencies. One component deserves mention: the Exchange Rate Deviation Index, the gap between GDP at purchasing power parity and GDP at market exchange rates, which reveals the structural undervaluation embedded in the monetary hierarchy.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">In the second phase of the cycle (C...P...C&#8217;), we will distinguish two dimensions: Productive and Network dependency. The first one captures the constraints on autonomous accumulation, and it is, as we shall see, the dimension that most sharply distinguishes economies that have transformed their structural position from those that have not. The issue goes well beyond &#8220;technological backwardness.&#8221; Even countries that have achieved significant industrial development continue to exhibit high productive dependency because the conditions under which peripheral industry operates (subordinate integration into transnational production networks, external determination of technological trajectories, financial pressures that divert surplus from fixed investment) structurally limit autonomous accumulation. We track cost competitiveness, productivity gaps relative to the global frontier, the degree of wage compression, and, crucially, investment deficiency: whether an economy is channelling its surplus into expanding its productive apparatus or diverting it elsewhere. That last indicator will prove decisive. As the data will show, the distinction between economies that invest and those that disinvest is the sharpest fault line in the global hierarchy.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Regarding Network dependency, we ask whether you are a central node or an appendage. Peripheral countries provide inputs and assembly services, while central countries control high-value activities and technological development. We measure this through the asymmetry of a country&#8217;s position in global trade networks and its capacity to function as an intermediary rather than as a terminal node. Most countries in our sample remain subordinated within global trade networks regardless of their other characteristics. The promise that &#8220;inserting into global value chains&#8221; would promote convergence has not materialized; insertion reproduces hierarchy.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The mechanisms that drain surplus from the periphery do not require visible plunder. Emmanuel demonstrated that unequal exchange operates through apparently equal market transactions: when wage differentials between countries exceed productivity differentials, an hour of metropolitan labor exchanges for multiple hours of peripheral labor, creating systematic value transfer even when commodities trade at equivalent prices.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Finally, in the third phase of the cycle (M&#8217;&#8211;D&#8217;), we distinguish between Distributive and Commercial dependency. Distributive dependency operationalizes these mechanisms of surplus appropriation concretely. We track the outflow of realized surplus through profit repatriation, interest transfers abroad, and the gap between the value a country creates in global markets and the value it captures domestically. We also measure the social reproduction deficit: how far public spending on health, education, and social protection falls short of levels needed to sustain the labor force. Contemporary patterns of superexploitation extend beyond traditional wage compression to encompass what Marini identified as the three tactics of peripheral capital: increasing labor intensity, extending the working day, and compressing real wages below the value of labor power, that is, wages insufficient to reproduce workers&#8217; productive capacity, a structural feature of the dependent cycle of capital.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Commercial dependency answers the question: what do you sell, and what do you buy? This dimension captures external control over the realization phase of the capital cycle, where surplus value extraction depends on market conditions determined by core economies. It goes beyond the classical focus on commodity concentration. A country can achieve apparent export diversification while remaining trapped in low-value segments of global production networks, what recent scholarship calls the &#8220;peripheralization of industrial activities.&#8221; This involves manufacturing export growth coexisting with systematic exclusion from strategic value creation. We track how much of a country&#8217;s exports consist of primary commodities versus high-technology goods, how much of the value-added in its exports is domestic, and how dependent its productive apparatus is on imported capital goods.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">A methodological note. The six dimensions are aggregated into a single composite score using a weighting method that preserves theoretical consistency: higher values always indicate greater dependency. All indicators are normalized to a common scale, ensuring the index ranges from 0 (maximum autonomy) to 1 (maximum dependency). A country scoring 0.20 retains substantial control over its accumulation process; a country scoring 0.80 has that process determined, in most dimensions, from outside. The detailed methodology, including variable construction, aggregation procedures, and robustness tests, will be presented in the forthcoming academic paper. Our dataset draws on TiVA-OECD, BACI, Penn World Tables, IMF IFS, World Bank WDI, and UNCTAD databases. The sample comprises 31 countries spanning 28 years and three major crises.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Table 1. SDI Dimensions and Operationalization. Source: own elaboration.</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!TGhA!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F23d3a686-f691-422a-a75c-cfe514773db1_1124x528.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!TGhA!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F23d3a686-f691-422a-a75c-cfe514773db1_1124x528.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!TGhA!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F23d3a686-f691-422a-a75c-cfe514773db1_1124x528.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!TGhA!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F23d3a686-f691-422a-a75c-cfe514773db1_1124x528.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!TGhA!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F23d3a686-f691-422a-a75c-cfe514773db1_1124x528.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!TGhA!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F23d3a686-f691-422a-a75c-cfe514773db1_1124x528.png" width="1124" height="528" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/23d3a686-f691-422a-a75c-cfe514773db1_1124x528.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:528,&quot;width&quot;:1124,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:204474,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/189964028?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F23d3a686-f691-422a-a75c-cfe514773db1_1124x528.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!TGhA!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F23d3a686-f691-422a-a75c-cfe514773db1_1124x528.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!TGhA!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F23d3a686-f691-422a-a75c-cfe514773db1_1124x528.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!TGhA!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F23d3a686-f691-422a-a75c-cfe514773db1_1124x528.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!TGhA!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F23d3a686-f691-422a-a75c-cfe514773db1_1124x528.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h2 style="text-align: justify;">Four worlds in the global economy</h2><p style="text-align: justify;">The global mean SDI is 0.494, indicating that most countries exhibit moderate dependency. The mean, however, conceals a dramatic architecture of inequality. A standard deviation of 0.201 reflects a world structured into qualitatively different positions, not one converging toward a common standard.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em><strong>Figure 1. Country Ranking &#8212; Structural Dependency Index, Average 1996&#8211;2023.</strong></em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!nR3F!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3a110605-b772-4f20-b6f3-267f8dead4ab_916x1206.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!nR3F!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3a110605-b772-4f20-b6f3-267f8dead4ab_916x1206.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!nR3F!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3a110605-b772-4f20-b6f3-267f8dead4ab_916x1206.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!nR3F!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3a110605-b772-4f20-b6f3-267f8dead4ab_916x1206.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!nR3F!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3a110605-b772-4f20-b6f3-267f8dead4ab_916x1206.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!nR3F!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3a110605-b772-4f20-b6f3-267f8dead4ab_916x1206.png" width="916" height="1206" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/3a110605-b772-4f20-b6f3-267f8dead4ab_916x1206.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1206,&quot;width&quot;:916,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:111352,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/189964028?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3a110605-b772-4f20-b6f3-267f8dead4ab_916x1206.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!nR3F!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3a110605-b772-4f20-b6f3-267f8dead4ab_916x1206.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!nR3F!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3a110605-b772-4f20-b6f3-267f8dead4ab_916x1206.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!nR3F!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3a110605-b772-4f20-b6f3-267f8dead4ab_916x1206.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!nR3F!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3a110605-b772-4f20-b6f3-267f8dead4ab_916x1206.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Source: own elaboration based on World Bank, Penn World Table, BACI, and OECD TiVA.</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;">The empirical results organize themselves into the four configurations we mapped in our previous note, defined not by income levels or geographic location but by the interaction between structural dependency and the state&#8217;s capacity to mediate it. The SDI captures the first axis of that interaction: the depth and breadth of structural subordination. The second axis, state mediating capacity, requires its own index, currently under construction. A comprehensive mapping of the transitions between quadrants will require both instruments to work in tandem. For now, we begin where the data are ready: the economic-structural plane. What follows is a reading of the data through that framework.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Figure 2. Structural Dependency in the Global Economy, 1996&#8211;2023.</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!r5uz!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F830d3407-ff54-4fae-ba57-6630a4e3ee6f_1092x598.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!r5uz!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F830d3407-ff54-4fae-ba57-6630a4e3ee6f_1092x598.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!r5uz!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F830d3407-ff54-4fae-ba57-6630a4e3ee6f_1092x598.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!r5uz!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F830d3407-ff54-4fae-ba57-6630a4e3ee6f_1092x598.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!r5uz!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F830d3407-ff54-4fae-ba57-6630a4e3ee6f_1092x598.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!r5uz!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F830d3407-ff54-4fae-ba57-6630a4e3ee6f_1092x598.png" width="1092" height="598" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/830d3407-ff54-4fae-ba57-6630a4e3ee6f_1092x598.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:598,&quot;width&quot;:1092,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:172155,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/189964028?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F830d3407-ff54-4fae-ba57-6630a4e3ee6f_1092x598.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!r5uz!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F830d3407-ff54-4fae-ba57-6630a4e3ee6f_1092x598.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!r5uz!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F830d3407-ff54-4fae-ba57-6630a4e3ee6f_1092x598.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!r5uz!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F830d3407-ff54-4fae-ba57-6630a4e3ee6f_1092x598.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!r5uz!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F830d3407-ff54-4fae-ba57-6630a4e3ee6f_1092x598.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Source: own elaboration based on World Bank, Penn World Table, BACI, and OECD TiVA. Countries are classified using the four-quadrant framework developed by L&#243;pez (2026).</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;">At the end of the spectrum, the United States registers an SDI consistently near zero throughout the entire period (mean 0.029). Germany sits higher but still in the low-dependency range (mean 0.220). Japan, the United Kingdom, and France sit in the semi-hegemonic range. Their low scores reflect imperial positioning rather than developmental achievement, a distinction we drew in the first note of this series. What the data add is temporal precision.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Japan&#8217;s SDI has increased over the period (range: 0.086&#8211;0.520), the only major economy in this quadrant to exhibit rising dependency. The erosion is concentrated in the technological and financial dimensions, reflecting the loss of manufacturing leadership to China and South Korea and the consequences of three decades of stagnation. A position at the apex of the hierarchy is not a permanent entitlement. The data show it can erode.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The United States, by contrast, shows almost no variation. Its autonomy is structural, embedded in the architecture of the global system itself: dollar hegemony, technological control, network centrality. This is not a finding that requires interpretation. It is the baseline against which peripheral dependency is measured.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">China registers a mean SDI of 0.334 over the full period. But the static position matters less than the trajectory. China&#8217;s SDI dropped from 0.528 to 0.164 over 28 years. Its standard deviation is among the highest in the sample (0.129), reflecting not instability but directional change, the dismantling of dependency across multiple dimensions simultaneously.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The productive dimension is the driving force behind this transition, with the investment component playing a decisive role. China&#8217;s gross fixed capital formation as a share of GDP has consistently exceeded 40%, reaching peaks above 45%. These are levels that are unmatched by any other economy in our sample. Our productive dependency dimension captures this directly: as China&#8217;s investment rate rose, its productive dependency score fell, dragging the overall SDI downwards. This is because fixed capital accumulation generates the technological capabilities, productivity gains, and domestic market expansion that reduce commercial, technological, and network dependencies in tandem. Investment in productive capacity is not just one dimension among six. It is the lever that moves the others.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The conditions for China&#8217;s transformation were historically specific. What the data add to the theoretical argument is precision: GFCF rates above 40%, sustained over two decades, combined with declining foreign value-added content in exports and rising domestic value capture. These are not abstractions. They are measurable policy outcomes.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Malaysia&#8217;s SDI trajectory shows the long-term dividend of rejecting IMF conditionality in 1997: preserved state control over the banking system and strategic enterprises translated into lower network dependency scores than Thailand, which accepted structural adjustment. But Malaysia&#8217;s greater openness to foreign capital in electronics manufacturing keeps its technological dependency scores elevated, the highest in the entire sample (0.946), a pattern the data make visible.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">For its part, the contested periphery is where the data become most damning. In Brazil, the SDI is 0.602, with a standard deviation of 0.043. That number deserves attention: it is the world&#8217;s tenth-largest economy, with the largest industrial base in Latin America and a domestic market of 200 million people. Over the past 28 years, its structural position has barely changed. That low variation across 28 years of data is not stability. It is stagnation with a decimal point.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Regarding Argentina, the SDI is 0.763, placing it firmly in the peripheral range. But the headline number obscures a more important finding. Argentina&#8217;s distributive dependency score of 0.783 is among the highest in the sample and the dominant dimension in its profile. The surplus drainage is not cyclical. It is a defining structural feature of the economy, and it explains why a country with historical industrial capacity, an educated workforce, and abundant natural resources reproduces crisis after crisis without altering its position in the hierarchy.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">At the same time, India&#8217;s SDI is 0.562. Here, the explanation is strongly related to technological dependence (0.624), which remains high despite its globally recognized IT sector. The specialization in services has not resolved technological subordination; it has coexisted with it.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">At the hyper-peripheral extreme (SDI above 0.80), Thailand, Colombia, Peru, and Mexico exhibit elevated dependency in virtually all six dimensions. Chile, with a mean SDI of 0.711, occupies a position that is revealing precisely because it is counterintuitive: the standard-bearer of neoliberal reform in Latin America, a country classified as high-income, registers a level of structural dependency higher than both Brazil and India. The &#8220;model&#8221; produced macroeconomic stability and structural subordination simultaneously.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The contrast with China on the productive dimension is devastating. While China channeled surplus into fixed capital at rates above 40% of GDP, the major Latin American economies exhibit investment rates between 15% and 22%. These are insufficient to close productivity gaps, build autonomous industrial capacity, or develop the endogenous technological capabilities that would reduce dependency across the other five dimensions. Their productive dependency scores remain persistently high, not because they lack an economic surplus, they generate one, but because that surplus is systematically diverted away from productive accumulation. The question that our next notes will address is where this surplus goes: financial speculation, profit repatriation, luxury consumption, and capital flight.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The geographic pattern is unmistakable. Latin America is the most uniformly dependent region in our sample. Every Latin American country in the dataset except Costa Rica falls into the peripheral or hyper-peripheral range, and Costa Rica itself sits in the upper semi-peripheral band. This consistency, persisting despite significant differences in size, resource endowments, and policy orientation, suggests that dependency operates through systemic mechanisms that transcend national policy choices.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The contested semi-periphery is where the political question becomes sharpest. Within our sample, India and Brazil occupy this space most clearly: economies with significant state capacity and large domestic markets whose SDI scores nonetheless remain stubbornly high.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Their dimensional profiles tell the story. Brazil combines moderate technological scores with elevated productive, financial, and distributive dependency, the empirical signature of an economy whose surplus is drained through the very channels our distributive dimension measures: profit repatriation, interest transfers, compressed domestic value capture. The institutional capacity exists. The class configuration that would redirect it does not, or not yet. In turn, India presents a different combination: lower financial dependency but high productive and technological scores, reflecting an economy where the services-led growth model has not translated into autonomous industrial accumulation. In both cases, the question is the same: why does state capacity coexist with structural subordination? The SDI identifies the constraint. However, it does not explain the political choices that perpetuate it.</p><h2 style="text-align: justify;">What each dimension reveals</h2><p style="text-align: justify;">Disaggregating the SDI into its six components shows how different mechanisms of dependency operate with varying intensity and how they cluster.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Network dependency is the most universal constraint, with a mean of 0.624; most countries remain subordinated within global trade networks regardless of their other characteristics. This is the empirical refutation of the promise that global value chain integration would promote convergence. Productive dependency follows closely at 0.525, reflecting widespread constraints on autonomous industrial development even in countries with significant manufacturing bases.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Commercial and financial dependency show moderate mean values (0.400 and 0.337, respectively) but with high variation: these are the dimensions where national profiles diverge most sharply, reflecting distinct modalities of insertion into global markets and financial circuits. Technological dependency sits at an intermediate level (0.423), while distributive dependency (0.423) shows the greatest variation among the dimensions (standard deviation of 0.207), reflecting heterogeneous patterns of surplus appropriation across the hierarchy.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Figure 3. Maps of Dependency by Each Dimension, 1996&#8211;2023.</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Mgcw!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe5afe138-3471-4784-a10c-58796b7dc21a_810x1388.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Mgcw!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe5afe138-3471-4784-a10c-58796b7dc21a_810x1388.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Mgcw!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe5afe138-3471-4784-a10c-58796b7dc21a_810x1388.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Mgcw!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe5afe138-3471-4784-a10c-58796b7dc21a_810x1388.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Mgcw!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe5afe138-3471-4784-a10c-58796b7dc21a_810x1388.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Mgcw!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe5afe138-3471-4784-a10c-58796b7dc21a_810x1388.png" width="810" height="1388" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Mgcw!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe5afe138-3471-4784-a10c-58796b7dc21a_810x1388.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Mgcw!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe5afe138-3471-4784-a10c-58796b7dc21a_810x1388.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Mgcw!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe5afe138-3471-4784-a10c-58796b7dc21a_810x1388.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Mgcw!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe5afe138-3471-4784-a10c-58796b7dc21a_810x1388.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div 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class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;"></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Source: own elaboration based on World Bank, Penn World Table, BACI, and OECD TiVA.</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;">The dimensional maps reveal distinct geographic patterns. Commercial dependency clusters strongly in resource-rich countries. Technological dependency affects both resource exporters and some manufacturing-oriented economies. Financial and network dependencies exhibit more dispersed patterns, reflecting the complex architecture of contemporary global economic integration and the waning of US hegemony amid hyper-financialization in the US and other countries in the Global North.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">At this level of disaggregation, the central finding is that dependency is never unidimensional. Countries rarely exhibit a single-dimensional dependency. Instead, it tends to cluster across related dimensions, creating systemic patterns of subordination that reproduce themselves across different historical periods and policy orientations. This is precisely why our framework insists on measuring all six dimensions simultaneously: partial analyses that focus on trade alone, or finance alone, or technology alone, will always underestimate the depth of the constraint. China&#8217;s trajectory suggests that overcoming these multidimensional constraints requires comprehensive transformation strategies that address productive, technological, and network dependencies simultaneously. This explains why, despite sustained efforts to grow and diversify, most countries remain locked in subordinate positions.</p><h2 style="text-align: justify;">What the data settle, and what they leave open</h2><p style="text-align: justify;">Our data settles the question. The first is empirical: dependency is not a metaphor from the 1960s but a measurable structure that persists across 28 years, three global crises, and radically different national policy orientations. The SDI hierarchy, from hegemonic centers to the hyper-peripheral extreme, has been remarkably stable for almost three decades.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The second is about possibility: structural transformation is possible. China&#8217;s trajectory from 0.528 to 0.164 is the proof. But the productive dimension tells us <em>how</em> it happened, through sustained investment in fixed capital at rates no Latin American economy has approached, generating cascading reductions in technological, commercial, and network dependencies. The lever is identifiable. The conditions under which it can be pulled are specific and demanding.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The third issue is the question that the SDI opens but cannot answer: <em>why</em> do some ruling classes reinvest the surplus into productive accumulation, while others divert it into finance, luxury consumption, and capital flight?</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The index measures this constraint. However, it does not explain the decisions that reproduce it. To achieve this, we need a different kind of analysis: one centered on class configurations, domestic political coalitions, and the institutional arrangements through which surplus is allocated. We will develop that analysis in the next note, following the surplus, to see where it goes.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">We have the map. Now, we will follow the surplus.</p><div><hr></div><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Emiliano L&#243;pez is a researcher at CONICET&#8211;Universidad Nacional de La Plata and Chief Economist at Tricontinental: Institute for Social Research.</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Facundo Barrera Insua is a researcher at CONICET&#8211;Universidad Nacional de La Plata and an economist member at Tricontinental: Institute for Social Research.</em></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Construir soberanía desde una economía política tricontinental]]></title><description><![CDATA[Emiliano L&#243;pez]]></description><link>https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/construir-soberania-desde-una-economia</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/construir-soberania-desde-una-economia</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Emiliano López]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Wed, 18 Feb 2026 19:10:28 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JKNm!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F97ec3143-e5d1-4c99-8a96-989171c0c934_3920x2972.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Emiliano L&#243;pez </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9XgB!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0f2fcba-cfd6-4c0e-a3b0-cffe1e1a9ace_172x149.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9XgB!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0f2fcba-cfd6-4c0e-a3b0-cffe1e1a9ace_172x149.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9XgB!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0f2fcba-cfd6-4c0e-a3b0-cffe1e1a9ace_172x149.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9XgB!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0f2fcba-cfd6-4c0e-a3b0-cffe1e1a9ace_172x149.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9XgB!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0f2fcba-cfd6-4c0e-a3b0-cffe1e1a9ace_172x149.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9XgB!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0f2fcba-cfd6-4c0e-a3b0-cffe1e1a9ace_172x149.png" width="172" height="149" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/d0f2fcba-cfd6-4c0e-a3b0-cffe1e1a9ace_172x149.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:149,&quot;width&quot;:172,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:23875,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/188385322?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe7c689f1-fce1-4e56-8a0a-c3e45c42a4c8_280x222.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9XgB!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0f2fcba-cfd6-4c0e-a3b0-cffe1e1a9ace_172x149.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9XgB!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0f2fcba-cfd6-4c0e-a3b0-cffe1e1a9ace_172x149.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9XgB!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0f2fcba-cfd6-4c0e-a3b0-cffe1e1a9ace_172x149.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9XgB!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0f2fcba-cfd6-4c0e-a3b0-cffe1e1a9ace_172x149.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Shiran Illamperuma </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0HkN!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F71bb4fb8-acce-4f2b-bacc-952c989e0bf3_170x162.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0HkN!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F71bb4fb8-acce-4f2b-bacc-952c989e0bf3_170x162.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0HkN!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F71bb4fb8-acce-4f2b-bacc-952c989e0bf3_170x162.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0HkN!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F71bb4fb8-acce-4f2b-bacc-952c989e0bf3_170x162.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0HkN!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F71bb4fb8-acce-4f2b-bacc-952c989e0bf3_170x162.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0HkN!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F71bb4fb8-acce-4f2b-bacc-952c989e0bf3_170x162.png" width="170" height="162" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/71bb4fb8-acce-4f2b-bacc-952c989e0bf3_170x162.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:162,&quot;width&quot;:170,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:40870,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/188385322?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F63b12a85-7b08-42f7-9790-595349eced33_238x208.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0HkN!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F71bb4fb8-acce-4f2b-bacc-952c989e0bf3_170x162.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0HkN!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F71bb4fb8-acce-4f2b-bacc-952c989e0bf3_170x162.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0HkN!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F71bb4fb8-acce-4f2b-bacc-952c989e0bf3_170x162.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0HkN!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F71bb4fb8-acce-4f2b-bacc-952c989e0bf3_170x162.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"></picture><div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>La econom&#237;a neocl&#225;sica hab&#237;a convertido la teor&#237;a marxista de la dependencia (y a otras escuelas heterodoxas) en una reliquia: una curiosidad intelectual latinoamericana de la Guerra Fr&#237;a, superada por la globalizaci&#243;n, las cadenas globales de valor (CGV) y el triunfo del desarrollo orientado por el mercado. Este veredicto, repetido en la econom&#237;a y la ciencia pol&#237;tica mainstream, hab&#237;a adquirido el estatus de sentido com&#250;n y hab&#237;a borrado convenientemente el hecho de que la teor&#237;a de la dependencia no era propiedad de una sola regi&#243;n, sino un proyecto intelectual tricontinental forjado en Am&#233;rica Latina, &#193;frica y Asia.<br><br>La desestimaci&#243;n de la teor&#237;a de la dependencia cumpli&#243; una funci&#243;n muy precisa: despej&#243; el terreno ideol&#243;gico para el neoliberalismo en la periferia, marginando conceptos cl&#225;sicos como el imperialismo, la transformaci&#243;n estructural y la divisi&#243;n internacional del trabajo. Con estos conceptos fuera del camino, solo quedaban precios por corregir, instituciones por construir y mercados por abrir. El subdesarrollo se convirti&#243; en un estado original, y la modernizaci&#243;n en un camino lineal prescrito por el Consenso de Washington.<br><br>Cuando el ascenso de China &#8212;el &#233;xito de desarrollo m&#225;s espectacular de nuestro tiempo&#8212; se volvi&#243; imposible de ignorar, la academia y los c&#237;rculos de pol&#237;tica occidentales se apresuraron a explicarlo con el kit de herramientas neoliberales: apertura comercial, integraci&#243;n en las Cadenas Globales de Valor y  liberalizaci&#243;n financiera. Que la trayectoria de China se haya sostenido precisamente en lo que prescrib&#237;a la teor&#237;a de la dependencia &#8212;propiedad p&#250;blica de los sectores estrat&#233;gicos de la econom&#237;a, controles de capital, condicionamiento de la inversi&#243;n extranjera y subordinaci&#243;n de las relaciones externas a las prioridades internas de desarrollo&#8212; fue sistem&#225;ticamente invisibilizado. El &#233;xito de la periferia deb&#237;a narrarse como una confirmaci&#243;n de las recetas del centro.<br><br><strong>La hegemon&#237;a se resquebraja, pero las cadenas permanecen</strong><br><br>A medida que avanza el siglo XXI, el orden neoliberal est&#225; en crisis. En el centro, el neoliberalismo ha conducido a la financiarizaci&#243;n y la desindustrializaci&#243;n. En la periferia, la integraci&#243;n en CGV cre&#243; nuevas barreras estructurales para la mejora tecnol&#243;gica (frecuentemente mal diagnosticadas como "trampa de ingresos medios"). Tanto en el centro como en la periferia, el resultado ha sido la polarizaci&#243;n social y una crisis de legitimidad pol&#237;tica para la clase dominante.<br><br>La inestabilidad y la falta de confiabilidad del orden econ&#243;mico liderado por Estados Unidos han creado fisuras en la superestructura del orden neoliberal. El ascenso econ&#243;mico de China (que hoy representa el 30% de la producci&#243;n manufacturera global), combinado con nuevos esfuerzos de regionalismo centrado en el Sur (ALBA-TCP, AES) y multilateralismo Sur-Sur (BRICS+), refleja un nuevo clima en el Sur Global. El momento unipolar est&#225; terminando, independientemente de los intentos cada vez m&#225;s err&#225;ticos de Washington por resucitarlo a trav&#233;s de guerras arancelarias, reg&#237;menes de sanciones y provocaciones militares. Las cadenas doradas de la era neoliberal &#8212;tratados de libre comercio, concesiones a inversores extranjeros y la propiedad intelectual internacional&#8212; son crecientemente reemplazadas por instrumentos directos.<br><br>Las econom&#237;as perif&#233;ricas de &#193;frica, Am&#233;rica Latina y gran parte de Asia permanecen atrapadas en patrones de subordinaci&#243;n que Paul Baran, Samir Amin, Ruy Mauro Marini y Theot&#244;nio dos Santos habr&#237;an reconocido de inmediato. Las jerarqu&#237;as financieras siguen disciplinando la pol&#237;tica monetaria perif&#233;rica a trav&#233;s del sistema del d&#243;lar y el FMI. La concentraci&#243;n tecnol&#243;gica en un pu&#241;ado de corporaciones transnacionales sigue excluyendo a la periferia de las fronteras de la innovaci&#243;n. La repatriaci&#243;n de ganancias, las transferencias de intereses y la compresi&#243;n sistem&#225;tica de los salarios por debajo de los costos de reproducci&#243;n &#8212;lo que Marini llam&#243; superexplotaci&#243;n, el mecanismo mediante el cual el capital perif&#233;rico compensa sus desventajas estructurales exprimiendo a los trabajadores m&#225;s de lo que el centro necesita hacerlo&#8212; contin&#250;an operando como la arquitectura oculta de la acumulaci&#243;n global.<br><br>La diferencia es que estos mecanismos ahora operan a trav&#233;s de lo que parecen ser procesos voluntarios e impulsados por el mercado. La compulsi&#243;n ya no es primariamente colonial; est&#225; incrustada en la arquitectura financiera, en los reg&#237;menes de propiedad intelectual, en el dise&#241;o institucional de los acuerdos comerciales y en la estructura de las CGV donde las firmas perif&#233;ricas ocupan posiciones subordinadas por dise&#241;o, no por accidente. Sin embargo, la intensificaci&#243;n de la militarizaci&#243;n y la abierta instrumentalizaci&#243;n de aranceles, sanciones y controles tecnol&#243;gicos &#8212;particularmente visible desde finales de la d&#233;cada de 2010&#8212; revelan que la coerci&#243;n nunca se retir&#243; verdaderamente. Ha sido, m&#225;s bien, mantenida en reserva: el ca&#241;o de plomo detr&#225;s de la mano invisible, desplegado cada vez que los mecanismos m&#225;s suaves de subordinaci&#243;n financiera e institucional resultan insuficientes para disciplinar a los estados perif&#233;ricos o contener el ascenso de competidores. La dependencia no ha desaparecido. Ha sido lavada &#8212; y cuando el lavado falla, la fuerza que la sostiene se vuelve expl&#237;cita una vez m&#225;s.<br><br>La ilusi&#243;n de la "buena gobernanza" y la "capacidad" estatal<br><br>Durante las &#250;ltimas tres d&#233;cadas, los conceptos gemelos de "capacidad estatal" y "buena gobernanza" han sido invocados como clave para superar el subdesarrollo. Construir mejores instituciones, fortalecer la gobernanza, reducir la corrupci&#243;n y mejorar el clima de negocios &#8212;estos fueron los mantras del posconsenso de Washington. Incluso algunos economistas heterodoxos adoptaron una versi&#243;n de este argumento, se&#241;alando a los estados desarrollistas del Este Asi&#225;tico como prueba de que la capacidad estatal pod&#237;a superar las restricciones estructurales.<br><br>Lo que gran parte de esta literatura se niega a confrontar es que lo que ha sido celebrado como "capacidad estatal" y "buena gobernanza" en la mayor parte del Sur Global fue, a menudo, nada m&#225;s que la subordinaci&#243;n de las instituciones y pol&#237;ticas p&#250;blicas a los intereses del capital extranjero y sus aliados locales. Esto signific&#243; la despolitizaci&#243;n de la pol&#237;tica econ&#243;mica y de la gobernanza, sustituyendo a "tecn&#243;cratas independientes" por representantes pol&#237;ticos. As&#237;, "buena gobernanza" y "capitalismo de amigos" no son opuestos sino, de hecho, gemelos.<br><br>El estado neoliberal en la periferia nunca fue d&#233;bil ni ineficaz. Por el contrario, fue bastante efectivo en disciplinar el trabajo, despojar a las empresas p&#250;blicas de activos, privatizar recursos naturales, desregular flujos financieros y desmantelar la pol&#237;tica industrial. La capacidad estatal no fracas&#243;, sino que fue construida al servicio de un proyecto de clase; la gobernanza fue, de hecho, "buena" para una estrecha clase dominante.<br><br>La burgues&#237;a perif&#233;rica, incapaz de competir directamente con las firmas tecnol&#243;gicamente m&#225;s avanzadas y financieramente m&#225;s poderosas del centro, a menudo entr&#243; voluntariamente en una posici&#243;n inferior dentro de la cadena de la dependencia. Abrazaron un programa de desmantelamiento de las instituciones desarrollistas y de aplastamiento del proletariado y del campesinado locales para asegurar su posici&#243;n de clase dom&#233;stica. Se conformaron para desempe&#241;ar el rol de intermediarios comerciales de los conglomerados financiero-industriales del centro. El FMI pudo haber provisto el gui&#243;n, pero los compradores dom&#233;sticos fueron, a menudo, actores muy entusiastas.<br><br>Las burgues&#237;as compradoras de la periferia &#8212;clases capitalistas locales cuyos beneficios no dependen de desarrollar la econom&#237;a dom&#233;stica sino de intermediar su subordinaci&#243;n al capital extranjero, lo que Vania Bambirra llam&#243; clases "dominadas-dominantes"&#8212; encontraron en la reestructuraci&#243;n neoliberal el veh&#237;culo perfecto para consolidar su propia posici&#243;n dentro de la jerarqu&#237;a global de acumulaci&#243;n de capital.<br><br>La literatura institucionalista y del estado desarrollista, cuando se aplica acr&#237;ticamente a las realidades perif&#233;ricas, mistifica este proceso al tratar la capacidad estatal como una dotaci&#243;n neutral en lugar de un terreno en disputa moldeado por la lucha de clases.<br><br><strong>Una teor&#237;a forjada en tres continentes</strong><br><br>Superar este impasse requiere reconstruir la teor&#237;a marxista de la dependencia como piedra angular de una econom&#237;a pol&#237;tica tricontinental. La narrativa est&#225;ndar reduce la dependencia de un asunto latinoamericano de los a&#241;os sesenta &#8212;los t&#233;rminos de intercambio de Ra&#250;l Prebisch, el estructuralismo de la CEPAL y las decepciones de la sustituci&#243;n de importaciones. Provincializar la teor&#237;a de la dependencia, un proyecto intelectual global, la separa de sus ra&#237;ces en las teor&#237;as cl&#225;sicas del imperialismo y en el di&#225;logo sostenido entre Am&#233;rica Latina, &#193;frica y Asia que le dio su poder anal&#237;tico.<br><br>Uno de los an&#225;lisis m&#225;s tempranos de la extracci&#243;n colonial de riqueza, de hecho, se origina en Asia, donde el nacionalista indio Dadabhai Naoroji analiz&#243; el drenaje de riqueza de la India por parte de Gran Breta&#241;a &#8212;una l&#237;nea de investigaci&#243;n que ha sido desarrollada a lo largo del tiempo por economistas marxistas indios como Utsa Patnaik. En China, Mao Zedong identific&#243; a la clase compradora como "ap&#233;ndices del imperialismo" que activamente "obstaculizan el desarrollo de las fuerzas productivas". En &#193;frica, el marxista egipcio Samir Amin analiz&#243; c&#243;mo las econom&#237;as locales estaban estructuralmente orientadas a atender la demanda externa en lugar de las necesidades internas, mientras que el historiador guyan&#233;s Walter Rodney demostr&#243; c&#243;mo Europa subdesarroll&#243; sistem&#225;ticamente el continente a lo largo de siglos de extracci&#243;n colonial y de reestructuraci&#243;n social.<br><br>Estas vertientes de pensamiento constituyeron un proyecto intelectual integrado, forjado a trav&#233;s de una historia compartida de lucha anticolonial y antiimperialista, y de encuentros como la Conferencia de Bandung de 1955, la Conferencia Tricontinental de La Habana de 1966 y la Conferencia de Dakar de 1972 convocada por Amin. Crucialmente, esta tradici&#243;n entendi&#243; la dependencia no como una anomal&#237;a de posguerra sino como una longue dur&#233;e &#8212;una condici&#243;n estructural enraizada en los cimientos coloniales del sistema-mundo capitalista. La teor&#237;a de la dependencia articul&#243; una teor&#237;a general de c&#243;mo el capitalismo global produce y reproduce sistem&#225;ticamente asimetr&#237;as estructurales a trav&#233;s de configuraciones de clase que son simult&#225;neamente dom&#233;sticas e internacionales &#8212; y lo hizo desde el punto de vista de tres continentes, no de uno.<br><br><strong>Mapear la dependencia contempor&#225;nea</strong><br><br>A partir de esta tradici&#243;n, hemos desarrollado un marco anal&#237;tico dual, construido en torno a dos &#237;ndices. El &#205;ndice de Dependencia Estructural (IDE) mide las restricciones objetivas a trav&#233;s de las dimensiones comercial, tecnol&#243;gica, financiera, productiva, de redes y distributiva, lo que captura c&#243;mo opera la dependencia contempor&#225;nea a lo largo de todo el circuito del capital. El &#205;ndice de Capacidad de Mediaci&#243;n Estatal (CME) mide los recursos institucionales disponibles para superar estas restricciones, desde el control del sector p&#250;blico sobre sectores estrat&#233;gicos hasta la regulaci&#243;n de los flujos de capital y la intensidad de la pol&#237;tica industrial.<br><br>La intersecci&#243;n de estas dos dimensiones genera lo que llamo el Mapa de la Dependencia:</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JKNm!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F97ec3143-e5d1-4c99-8a96-989171c0c934_3920x2972.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JKNm!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F97ec3143-e5d1-4c99-8a96-989171c0c934_3920x2972.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JKNm!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F97ec3143-e5d1-4c99-8a96-989171c0c934_3920x2972.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JKNm!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F97ec3143-e5d1-4c99-8a96-989171c0c934_3920x2972.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JKNm!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F97ec3143-e5d1-4c99-8a96-989171c0c934_3920x2972.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p></p><p><br><br>En un extremo de este mapa encontramos lo que llamo Autonom&#237;a No Hegem&#243;nica &#8212;econom&#237;as como China, Vietnam y, en menor medida, Malasia, que han logrado subordinar sus relaciones externas a las prioridades de desarrollo internas. Lo que hace distintiva su autonom&#237;a es que no deriva de un posicionamiento imperial en la c&#250;spide de la jerarqu&#237;a global, sino de una estrategia pol&#237;tica e institucional deliberada: lo que Amin teoriz&#243; como la condici&#243;n para el desarrollo perif&#233;rico autoc&#233;ntrico. Los centros hegem&#243;nicos &#8212;Estados Unidos, Alemania, Jap&#243;n&#8212; tambi&#233;n muestran baja dependencia, pero por razones cualitativamente diferentes, que reflejan la extracci&#243;n imperial en lugar del logro de desarrollo.<br><br>La configuraci&#243;n m&#225;s preocupante es la de la Periferia Subordinada &#8212;econom&#237;as atrapadas en una alta dependencia, con capacidad institucional agotada. Argentina, Chile, Per&#250;, Honduras, Kenia, Filipinas: estas son sociedades en las que d&#233;cadas de ajuste estructural han desmantelado las mismas instituciones que podr&#237;an haber permitido una trayectoria diferente. La l&#243;gica perversa aqu&#237; es autorreforzante &#8212;cuanto m&#225;s d&#233;bil es la capacidad de desarrollo del Estado, m&#225;s profunda la dependencia, m&#225;s dif&#237;cil se vuelve reconstruir esa capacidad.<br><br>Finalmente, el terreno anal&#237;ticamente m&#225;s significativo &#8212;y pol&#237;ticamente m&#225;s disputado&#8212; es lo que denomino la Semiperiferia en Disputa. India, Brasil, Sud&#225;frica, Indonesia, Turqu&#237;a, Nigeria y, discutiblemente, Rusia ocupan este espacio, donde una capacidad estatal significativa coexiste con restricciones estructurales persistentes. Estas econom&#237;as poseen recursos institucionales que podr&#237;an, bajo diferentes configuraciones de clase, ser desplegados para una transformaci&#243;n genuina del desarrollo. Pero permanecen atrapadas en posiciones contradictorias: suficiente capacidad para resistir la subordinaci&#243;n completa, pero insuficiente articulaci&#243;n pol&#237;tica para romper la l&#243;gica estructural de la dependencia. Es precisamente en esta zona en disputa donde los intereses pol&#237;ticos de la transici&#243;n multipolar son m&#225;s intensos.<br><br><strong>El camino que importa: del Cuadrante III al Cuadrante I</strong><br><br>La intuici&#243;n cr&#237;tica de este marco no es la clasificaci&#243;n est&#225;tica sino el camino de transformaci&#243;n que revela. La pregunta decisiva para el Sur Global hoy es c&#243;mo pasar del Cuadrante III al Cuadrante I, de la Periferia Subordinada a la Autonom&#237;a No Hegem&#243;nica. Esta no es meramente una cuesti&#243;n t&#233;cnica sino tambi&#233;n pol&#237;tica.<br><br>El primer movimiento (del III al IV) requiere la reconstrucci&#243;n de las bases institucionales para la acci&#243;n aut&#243;noma: restablecer el control p&#250;blico sobre las finanzas, desarrollar una pol&#237;tica industrial centrada en la gente, fortalecer la soberan&#237;a fiscal y monetaria y regular los flujos de capital. Este es el terreno de la "capacidad estatal" y de la "buena gobernanza", pero no en el sentido despolitizado de la literatura mainstream. El estado mismo es un campo de lucha de clases &#8212;reconstruir las instituciones administrativas requiere confrontar a las &#233;lites dom&#233;sticas que se benefician del orden existente.<br><br>El segundo movimiento (del IV al I) requiere el despliegue estrat&#233;gico de la capacidad acumulada para reestructurar los patrones de acumulaci&#243;n dom&#233;stica &#8212;lo que Amin llam&#243; "desconexi&#243;n", entendida no como autarqu&#237;a sino como la subordinaci&#243;n de las relaciones externas a las prioridades de desarrollo internas. La trayectoria de China demuestra que esto requiere no el aislamiento de la econom&#237;a mundial, sino el condicionamiento estrat&#233;gico de la integraci&#243;n: controles de capital, requisitos de transferencia de tecnolog&#237;a para inversores extranjeros, propiedad estatal de las alturas dominantes y participaci&#243;n selectiva en los mercados globales bajo direcci&#243;n soberana.<br><br>La coyuntura multipolar contempor&#225;nea crea condiciones m&#225;s favorables para ambos movimientos de las que el momento unipolar jam&#225;s ofreci&#243;. La arquitectura institucional de la cooperaci&#243;n Sur-Sur, BRICS+, la Iniciativa de la Franja y la Ruta, los bancos de desarrollo alternativos y los arreglos bilaterales fuera del circuito del d&#243;lar  proveen alternativas materiales a las instituciones dominadas por Occidente. Pero la capacidad de aprovechar estas oportunidades var&#237;a dram&#225;ticamente seg&#250;n d&#243;nde se ubican los pa&#237;ses en el Mapa de la Dependencia. Los pa&#237;ses en el Cuadrante IV pueden extraer beneficios del desarrollo de nuevas alianzas; los pa&#237;ses en el Cuadrante III arriesgan simplemente trasladar el locus de su subordinaci&#243;n de Washington a otro lugar.<br><br>Por ello, el an&#225;lisis de clase sigue siendo indispensable. El obst&#225;culo para el desarrollo perif&#233;rico no reside en factores culturales o fallas de pol&#237;tica, sino en las configuraciones de clase que el capitalismo perif&#233;rico produce sistem&#225;ticamente. Las burgues&#237;as compradoras &#8212;ya sea que lleven la m&#225;scara de tecn&#243;cratas neoliberales o de populistas nacionalistas&#8212; no liderar&#225;n un proceso genuino de desconexi&#243;n, porque su acumulaci&#243;n depende de mantener la relaci&#243;n de dependencia. La transformaci&#243;n de la subordinaci&#243;n a la soberan&#237;a nunca ha resultado &#250;nicamente de la modernizaci&#243;n dirigida por las &#233;lites. Siempre ha requerido amplias coaliciones desde abajo &#8212;movimientos de trabajadores, organizaciones campesinas, fuerzas populares&#8212; capaces de articular un proyecto pol&#237;tico coherente que desaf&#237;e los fundamentos estructurales de la dependencia.<br><br>Las categor&#237;as anal&#237;ticas de la teor&#237;a marxista de la dependencia &#8212;superexplotaci&#243;n, intercambio desigual, burgues&#237;a compradora y desconexi&#243;n&#8212; siguen siendo relevantes y vitales hoy. Son las armas te&#243;ricas forjadas por una econom&#237;a pol&#237;tica tricontinental que nos ayuda a comprender las restricciones estructurales que enfrenta el Sur Global e identificar las estrategias pol&#237;ticas capaces de superarlas.<br><br>El momento multipolar abre una puerta. Pero las puertas se cierran. La pregunta es si las fuerzas populares de la periferia, a lo largo de Am&#233;rica Latina, &#193;frica y Asia, pueden construir movimientos sociales y liderazgo pol&#237;tico para atravesarla.<br><br></p><div><hr></div><p><em><br>Emiliano L&#243;pez es investigador del CONICET-Universidad Nacional de La Plata y economista jefe de Tricontinental: Institute for Social Research. Su trabajo reciente desarrolla marcos renovados para el an&#225;lisis de la dependencia como piedra angular de la econom&#237;a pol&#237;tica del Sur Global en la era multipolar.<br><br>Shiran Illanperuma es investigador de Tricontinental: Institute for Social Research y co-editor de la edici&#243;n internacional de Wenhua Zongheng: A Journal of Contemporary Chinese Thought. Es Profesor Visitante en el Bandaranaike Centre for International Studies. Su investigaci&#243;n actual se centra en el desarrollo y la pol&#237;tica industrial en Asia.</em></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Building Sovereignty from a Tricontinental Political Economy]]></title><description><![CDATA[Emiliano L&#243;pez]]></description><link>https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/building-sovereignty-from-a-tricontinental</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/building-sovereignty-from-a-tricontinental</guid><pubDate>Mon, 16 Feb 2026 23:30:23 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Lsup!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0fbb9288-0ae7-4dd4-a203-72cfc96c3e14_2785x2045.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>Emiliano L&#243;pez</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2" target="_blank" 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https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oZgc!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5ba1d0c9-5279-4e83-bcd1-5234fcacdf3d_194x176.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oZgc!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5ba1d0c9-5279-4e83-bcd1-5234fcacdf3d_194x176.png" width="194" height="176" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oZgc!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5ba1d0c9-5279-4e83-bcd1-5234fcacdf3d_194x176.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oZgc!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5ba1d0c9-5279-4e83-bcd1-5234fcacdf3d_194x176.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oZgc!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5ba1d0c9-5279-4e83-bcd1-5234fcacdf3d_194x176.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oZgc!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5ba1d0c9-5279-4e83-bcd1-5234fcacdf3d_194x176.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div></div></div></a></figure></div><p><em>Shiran Illanperuma</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!boxF!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2e0016c8-8545-43ec-a624-29c366f92fe5_192x187.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!boxF!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2e0016c8-8545-43ec-a624-29c366f92fe5_192x187.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!boxF!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2e0016c8-8545-43ec-a624-29c366f92fe5_192x187.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!boxF!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2e0016c8-8545-43ec-a624-29c366f92fe5_192x187.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!boxF!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2e0016c8-8545-43ec-a624-29c366f92fe5_192x187.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!boxF!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2e0016c8-8545-43ec-a624-29c366f92fe5_192x187.png" width="192" height="187" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/2e0016c8-8545-43ec-a624-29c366f92fe5_192x187.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:187,&quot;width&quot;:192,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:48142,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/i/187768098?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fafe3a454-992b-4784-ba75-f2ee433c47c5_238x208.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!boxF!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2e0016c8-8545-43ec-a624-29c366f92fe5_192x187.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!boxF!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2e0016c8-8545-43ec-a624-29c366f92fe5_192x187.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!boxF!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2e0016c8-8545-43ec-a624-29c366f92fe5_192x187.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!boxF!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2e0016c8-8545-43ec-a624-29c366f92fe5_192x187.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"></picture><div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Neoclassical economics had cast Marxist dependency theory (and other heterodox schools of thought) as a relic &#8211; a Latin American intellectual curiosity from the Cold War era, now superseded by globalisation, global value chains (GVCs), and the triumph of market-led development. This verdict, repeated in mainstream economics and political science, had acquired the status of common sense and conveniently erased the fact that dependency theory was not the property of a single region, but a Tricontinental intellectual project forged across Latin America, Africa, and Asia.</p><p>The dismissal of dependency theory served a very precise function: it cleared the ideological ground for neoliberalism in the periphery by marginalising classical concepts such as imperialism, structural transformation, and the international division of labour. With these concepts out of the way, there were only prices to get right, institutions to build, and markets to open. Underdevelopment became an original state, and modernisation a linear cookie-cutter path prescribed by the Washington Consensus.</p><div class="subscription-widget-wrap-editor" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;en&quot;}" data-component-name="SubscribeWidgetToDOM"><div class="subscription-widget show-subscribe"><div class="preamble"><p class="cta-caption">Thanks for reading Tricontinental Political Economy! Subscribe for free to receive new posts and support my work.</p></div><form class="subscription-widget-subscribe"><input type="email" class="email-input" name="email" placeholder="Type your email&#8230;" tabindex="-1"><input type="submit" class="button primary" value="Subscribe"><div class="fake-input-wrapper"><div class="fake-input"></div><div class="fake-button"></div></div></form></div></div><p>When China&#8217;s rise &#8211; the most spectacular developmental success of our time &#8211; became impossible to ignore, Western academia and policy circles rushed to explain it with the neoliberal toolkit: openness to trade, integration into GVCs, and liberalisation. The fact that China&#8217;s trajectory rested on precisely what dependency theory prescribed &#8211; public ownership over the commanding heights of the economy, capital controls, conditioned foreign investment, and the subordination of external relations to internal developmental priorities &#8211; was systematically obscured. The success of the periphery had to be narrated as a vindication of the centre&#8217;s prescriptions.</p><h2>The Hegemony Cracks, but the Chains Remain</h2><p>As the twenty-first century unfolds, the neoliberal order is in crisis. In the core, neoliberalism has led to financialisation and deindustrialisation. In the periphery, integration into GVCs created new structural barriers to technological upgrading (often misdiagnosed as a &#8216;middle-income trap&#8217;). In both the core and the periphery, the result has been social polarisation and a crisis of political legitimacy for the ruling class.</p><p>The instability and unreliability of the US-led economic order have created cracks in the neoliberal order&#8217;s superstructure. The economic rise of China (now accounting for 30% of global manufacturing production), combined with new efforts at South-centred regionalism (ALBA-TCP, AES) and South-South multilateralism (BRICS+), reflects a new mood in the Global South. The unipolar moment is ending, regardless of Washington&#8217;s increasingly erratic attempts to resuscitate it through tariff wars, sanctions regimes, and military provocations. The gilded chains of the neoliberal era &#8211; free trade agreements, concessions to foreign investors, and the international intellectual property &#8211; are increasingly replaced by blunt instruments.</p><p>The peripheral economies of Africa, Latin America, and large parts of Asia remain trapped in patterns of subordination that Paul Baran, Samir Amin, Ruy Mauro Marini, and Theot&#244;nio dos Santos would have recognised immediately. Financial hierarchies still discipline peripheral monetary policy through the dollar system and the IMF. Technological concentration in a handful of transnational corporations still excludes the periphery from innovation frontiers. Profit repatriation, interest transfers, and the systematic compression of wages below reproduction costs &#8211; what Marini called super exploitation, the mechanism by which peripheral capital compensates for its structural disadvantages by squeezing workers harder than the centre ever needs to &#8211; continue to operate as the hidden architecture of global accumulation.</p><p>The difference is that these mechanisms now operate through what appear to be voluntary, market-driven processes. The compulsion is no longer primarily colonial; it is embedded in the financial architecture, in intellectual property regimes, in the institutional design of trade agreements, and in the structure of GVCs where peripheral firms occupy subordinate positions by design, not by accident. Yet the intensification of militarization and the open weaponization of tariffs, sanctions, and technology controls &#8211; particularly visible since the late 2010s &#8211; reveal that coercion has never truly receded. It has, rather, been held in reserve: the lead pipe behind the invisible hand, deployed whenever the softer mechanisms of financial and institutional subordination prove insufficient to discipline peripheral states or contain the rise of competitors. Dependency has not disappeared. It has been laundered &#8211; and when the laundering fails, the force behind it is made explicit once more.</p><h2>The &#8216;Good Governance&#8217; and State &#8216;Capacity&#8217; Illusion</h2><p>For the past three decades, the twin concepts of &#8216;state capacity&#8217; and &#8216;good governance&#8217; have been invoked as the key to overcoming underdevelopment. Build better institutions, strengthen governance, reduce corruption, and improve the business environment &#8211; these were the mantras of the post-Washington Consensus. Even some heterodox economists embraced a version of this argument, pointing to the East Asian developmental states as proof that state capacity could overcome structural constraints.</p><p>What much of this literature refuses to confront is that what has been celebrated as &#8216;state capacity&#8217; and &#8216;good governance&#8217; in most of the Global South was often nothing more than the subordination of public institutions and policies to the interests of foreign capital and its local allies. This meant the depoliticisation of economic policy and governance, substituting &#8216;independent technocrats&#8217; for political representatives. Thus, &#8216;good governance&#8217; and &#8216;crony capitalism&#8217; are not opposites but in fact twins.</p><p>The neoliberal state in the periphery was never weak or ineffectual. On the contrary, it was quite effective in disciplining labour, asset stripping public enterprises, privatising natural resources, deregulating financial flows, and dismantling industrial policy. State capacity did not fail but was built in the service of a class project; governance was, in fact, &#8216;good&#8217; for a narrow ruling class.</p><p>The peripheral bourgeoisie, unable to directly compete with the more technologically advanced and financially wealthy firms in the core, often willingly entered a junior partnership in the chain of dependency. They embraced a programme of dismantling developmental institutions and smashing the local proletariat and peasantry to secure their domestic class position. They were satisfied playing the role of merchant mediaries to the financial-industrial combines of the core. The IMF may have provided the script, but domestic compradors were often eager performers.</p><p>The comprador bourgeoisies of the periphery &#8211; local capitalist classes whose profits depend not on developing the domestic economy but on brokering its subordination to foreign capital, what Vania Bambirra called &#8216;dominated-dominant&#8217; classes &#8211; found in neoliberal restructuring the perfect vehicle for consolidating their own position within the global hierarchy of capital accumulation.</p><p>The institutionalist and developmental state literature, when uncritically applied to peripheral realities, mystifies this process by treating state capacity as a neutral endowment rather than a contested terrain shaped by class struggle.</p><h2>A Theory Forged across Three Continents</h2><p>Overcoming this impasse requires reconstructing Marxist dependency theory as the cornerstone of a Tricontinental political economy. The standard narrative reduces dependency to a Latin American affair of the 1960s &#8211; Ra&#250;l Prebisch&#8217;s terms of trade, the structuralism of the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, and the disappointments of import substitution. Provincializing a dependency theory, a global intellectual project, severs it from its roots in classical theories of imperialism and from the sustained dialogue across Latin America, Africa, and Asia that gave it its analytical power.</p><p>One of the earliest analyses of colonial wealth extraction, in fact, originates in Asia, where Indian nationalist Dadabhai Naoroji analysed Britain&#8217;s drain of wealth from India &#8211; a scholarship that has been developed over time by Indian Marxist economists like Utsa Patnaik. In China, Mao Zedong identified the comprador class as &#8216;appendages of imperialism&#8217; that actively &#8216;hinder the development of productive forces. For Africa, Egyptian Marxist Samir Amin analysed how local economies were structurally oriented toward serving external demand rather than internal needs, while Guyanese historian Walter Rodney demonstrated how Europe systematically underdeveloped the continent through centuries of colonial extraction and social restructuring.</p><p>These strands of thought constituted an integrated intellectual project, forged through a shared history of anti-colonial and anti-imperialist struggle, and encounters like the 1955 Bandung Conference, the 1966 Tricontinental Conference in Havana, and the 1972 Dakar Conference convened by Amin. Crucially, this tradition understood dependency not as a post-war anomaly but as a <em>longue dur&#233;e</em> &#8211; a structural condition rooted in the colonial foundations of the capitalist world system. Dependency theory articulated a general theory of how global capitalism systematically produces and reproduces structural asymmetries through class configurations that are simultaneously domestic and international &#8211; and it did so from the standpoint of three continents, not one.</p><h2>Mapping Contemporary Dependency</h2><p>Building on this tradition, I have developed a dual analytical framework built around two indices. The <em>Structural Dependency Index</em> (SDI) measures objective constraints across commercial, technological, financial, productive, network, and distributive dimensions &#8211; capturing how contemporary dependency operates through the entire circuit of capital. The <em>State Mediating Capacity</em> (SMC) index measures the institutional resources available to navigate these constraints &#8211; from public-sector control over strategic sectors to capital-flow regulation and industrial policy intensity.</p><p>The intersection of these two dimensions generates what I call the <em>Dependency Map</em>:</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Lsup!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0fbb9288-0ae7-4dd4-a203-72cfc96c3e14_2785x2045.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Lsup!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0fbb9288-0ae7-4dd4-a203-72cfc96c3e14_2785x2045.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Lsup!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0fbb9288-0ae7-4dd4-a203-72cfc96c3e14_2785x2045.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Lsup!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0fbb9288-0ae7-4dd4-a203-72cfc96c3e14_2785x2045.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Lsup!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0fbb9288-0ae7-4dd4-a203-72cfc96c3e14_2785x2045.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Lsup!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0fbb9288-0ae7-4dd4-a203-72cfc96c3e14_2785x2045.png" width="1456" height="1069" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/0fbb9288-0ae7-4dd4-a203-72cfc96c3e14_2785x2045.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1069,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:null,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:null,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Lsup!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0fbb9288-0ae7-4dd4-a203-72cfc96c3e14_2785x2045.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Lsup!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0fbb9288-0ae7-4dd4-a203-72cfc96c3e14_2785x2045.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Lsup!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0fbb9288-0ae7-4dd4-a203-72cfc96c3e14_2785x2045.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Lsup!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0fbb9288-0ae7-4dd4-a203-72cfc96c3e14_2785x2045.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>At one end of this map, we find what I call <em>Non-Hegemonic Autonomy</em> &#8211; economies like China, Vietnam, and, to a lesser extent, Malaysia that have managed to subordinate their external relations to internal developmental priorities. What makes their autonomy distinctive is that it does not derive from imperial positioning at the apex of the global hierarchy, but from a deliberate political and institutional strategy: what Amin theorised as the condition for autocentric peripheral development. The hegemonic centres &#8211; the United States, Germany, Japan &#8211; also display low dependency, but for qualitatively different reasons that reflect imperial extraction rather than developmental achievement.</p><p>The most troubling configuration is that of the <em>Subordinate Periphery</em> &#8211; economies trapped in high dependency with depleted institutional capacity. Argentina, Chile, Peru, Honduras, Kenya, the Philippines: these are societies where decades of structural adjustment have dismantled the very institutions that might have enabled a different trajectory. The perverse logic here is self-reinforcing &#8211; the weaker the state&#8217;s developmental capacity, the deeper the dependency, the more difficult it becomes to reconstruct that capacity.</p><p>Finally, the most analytically significant &#8211; and politically contested &#8211; terrain is what I term the <em>Contested Semi-Periphery</em>. India, Brazil, South Africa, Indonesia, Turkey, Nigeria, and arguably Russia occupies this space, where significant state capacity coexists with persistent structural constraints. These economies possess institutional resources that could, under different class configurations, be deployed for genuine developmental transformation. But they remain trapped in contradictory positions: enough capacity to resist full subordination, yet insufficient political articulation to break the structural logic of dependency. It is precisely in this contested zone where the political stakes of the multipolar transition are highest.</p><h2>The Pathway That Matters: from Quadrant III to Quadrant I</h2><p>The critical insight of this framework is not the static classification but the path of transformation it reveals. The decisive question for the Global South today is how to move from Quadrant III to Quadrant I &#8211; from <em>Subordinate Periphery</em> to <em>Non-Hegemonic Autonomy</em>. This is not merely a technical question but also a political one.</p><p>The first movement (from III to IV) requires the reconstruction of institutional foundations for autonomous action: rebuilding public control over finance, developing people-centred industrial policy, strengthening fiscal and monetary sovereignty, and regulating capital flows. This is the terrain of &#8216;state capacity&#8217; and &#8216;good governance&#8217;, but not in the depoliticised sense of the mainstream literature. The state itself is a field of class struggle &#8211; rebuilding administrative institutions requires confronting domestic elites that benefit from the existing order.</p><p>The second movement (from IV to I) requires the strategic deployment of accumulated capacity to restructure domestic accumulation patterns &#8211; what Amin called &#8216;delinking&#8217;, understood not as autarky but as the subordination of external relations to internal developmental priorities. China&#8217;s trajectory demonstrates that this requires not isolation from the world economy but strategic <em>conditioning</em> of integration: capital controls, technology-transfer requirements on foreign investors, state ownership of commanding heights, and selective engagement with global markets under sovereign direction.</p><p>The contemporary multipolar conjuncture creates conditions more favourable for both movements than the unipolar moment ever did. The institutional architecture of South-South cooperation &#8211; BRICS+, the Belt and Road Initiative, alternative development banks, and bilateral arrangements outside the dollar circuit &#8211; provides material alternatives to Western-dominated institutions. But the capacity to leverage these opportunities varies dramatically depending on where countries sit in the Dependency Map. Countries in Quadrant IV can extract developmental benefits from new partnerships; countries in Quadrant III risk merely shifting the locus of their subordination from Washington to somewhere else.</p><p>This is why class analysis remains indispensable. The obstacle to peripheral development lies not in cultural factors or policy failures, but in the class configurations that peripheral capitalism systematically produces. Comprador bourgeoisies &#8211; whether they wear the mask of neoliberal technocrats or nationalist populists &#8211; will not lead a genuine process of delinking, because their accumulation depends on maintaining the dependent relationship. The transformation from subordination to sovereignty has never resulted solely from elite-led modernisation. It has always required broad coalitions from below &#8211; workers&#8217; movements, peasant organizations, popular forces &#8211; capable of articulating a coherent political project that challenges the structural foundations of dependency.</p><p>The analytical categories of Marxist dependency theory &#8211; super exploitation, unequal exchange, the comprador bourgeoisie, and delinking &#8211; remain both relevant and vital today. They are the theoretical weapons forged by a Tricontinental political economy that helps us to understand the structural constraints facing the Global South and identify the political strategies capable of overcoming them.</p><p>The multipolar moment opens a door. But doors close. The question is whether the popular forces of the periphery &#8211; across Latin America, Africa, and Asia &#8211; can build the social movements and political leadership to walk through it.</p><div><hr></div><p></p><p><em>Emiliano L&#243;pez is a researcher at CONICET-Universidad Nacional de La Plata and Chief Economist at Tricontinental: Institute for Social Research. His recent work develops renewed frameworks for dependency analysis as the cornerstone of the Global South political economy in the multipolar era.</em></p><p><em>Shiran Illanperuma is a researcher at Tricontinental: Institute for Social Research and a co-editor of the international edition of </em>Wenhua Zongheng: A Journal of Contemporary Chinese Thought<em>. He is a Visiting Lecturer at Bandaranaike Centre for International Studies.</em> <em>His current research focuses on development and industrial policy in Asia.</em></p><div class="subscription-widget-wrap-editor" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;en&quot;}" data-component-name="SubscribeWidgetToDOM"><div class="subscription-widget show-subscribe"><div class="preamble"><p class="cta-caption">Thanks for reading Tricontinental Political Economy! Subscribe for free to receive new posts and support my work.</p></div><form class="subscription-widget-subscribe"><input type="email" class="email-input" name="email" placeholder="Type your email&#8230;" tabindex="-1"><input type="submit" class="button primary" value="Subscribe"><div class="fake-input-wrapper"><div class="fake-input"></div><div class="fake-button"></div></div></form></div></div>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Empezá acá: de qué se trata este Substack]]></title><description><![CDATA[Hay una pregunta que recorre los tres continentes.]]></description><link>https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/empeza-aca-de-que-se-trata-este-substack</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/empeza-aca-de-que-se-trata-este-substack</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Tricon Political Economy]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Thu, 12 Feb 2026 16:55:28 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kcDn!,w_256,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7bfc009f-d558-43fb-b2ed-6bb584b5845c_1280x1280.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Hay una pregunta que recorre los tres continentes.</p><p>La pregunta no es por qu&#233; somos pobres, porque no lo somos. Am&#233;rica Latina, &#193;frica y Asia tienen los minerales del mundo, su petr&#243;leo, su litio, su suelo f&#233;rtil, su fuerza de trabajo. La pregunta no es sobre la escasez. Nunca fue sobre la escasez.</p><p>La pregunta es: &#191;ad&#243;nde va la riqueza y qui&#233;n decide c&#243;mo se distribuye?</p><p>Este Substack sigue el excedente. Rastreamos c&#243;mo la riqueza es extra&#237;da de los pa&#237;ses que la producen y acumulada por los pa&#237;ses que no la producen,  a trav&#233;s de la fuga de capitales, las trampas de la deuda, el intercambio desigual y las alianzas de clase que hacen funcionar todo el sistema.</p><p>Este es un proyecto colectivo de Econom&#237;a Pol&#237;tica en el Instituto Tricontinental. Nuestro equipo re&#250;ne investigadores e investigadoras de Am&#233;rica Latina, &#193;frica y Asia, los tres continentes cuyas tradiciones intelectuales y luchas pol&#237;ticas dieron origen a la teor&#237;a de la dependencia y otras perspectivas del Sur Global. Cada art&#237;culo lleva la firma de su autor o autores, pero el programa es compartido: teor&#237;a rigurosa, evidencia emp&#237;rica construida desde los tres continentes y la pregunta pol&#237;tica que la teor&#237;a de la dependencia siempre insisti&#243; en plantear: no solo &#191;c&#243;mo funciona el sistema? Si no, &#191;qu&#233; hace falta para cambiarlo?</p><p>POR D&#211;NDE EMPEZAR</p><p>Este Substack est&#225; estructurado como un argumento acumulativo. Cada serie de notas aborda una dimensi&#243;n de la estructura de la dependencia. Ac&#225; pod&#233;s empezar, seg&#250;n lo que te interese:</p><p>&#128202; Los datos &#8212; &#8220;&#191;Ad&#243;nde va el excedente?&#8221; &#8212; se pregunta qu&#233; pasa con la riqueza producida en el Sur Global. Usando diversos indicadores de acumulaci&#243;n dependiente en 41 pa&#237;ses a lo largo de 26 a&#241;os &#8212; reinversi&#243;n del excedente, fuga de capitales, intercambio desigual, concentraci&#243;n productiva &#8212; mostramos c&#243;mo Am&#233;rica Latina reinvierte solo el 15% de su excedente econ&#243;mico, mientras que China reinvierte el 36%. La brecha explica el &#8220;subdesarrollo&#8221; mejor que cualquier &#237;ndice de corrupci&#243;n.</p><p>&#128184; La trampa financiera &#8212; &#8220;La correa financiera&#8221; mapea la fuga de capitales en Am&#233;rica Latina y &#193;frica. Chile pierde el 9,1 % de su PBI anualmente. Nigeria perdi&#243; 340.000 millones de d&#243;lares. La fuga de capitales de la Rep&#250;blica del Congo equivale al 706% de su PBI. Los datos son devastadores &#8212; y tienen una direcci&#243;n.</p><p>&#129517; El marco anal&#237;tico &#8212; Construimos herramientas anal&#237;ticas originales para medir la dependencia en m&#250;ltiples dimensiones simult&#225;neamente: comercial, financiera, productiva, de redes, distributiva y tecnol&#243;gica. No solo importa saber que somos dependientes, sino tambi&#233;n c&#243;mo, a trav&#233;s de qu&#233; canales y qu&#233; har&#237;a falta para salir.</p><p>&#127757; La geopol&#237;tica &#8212; Si la vieja hegemon&#237;a est&#225; muriendo, &#191;cu&#225;les son las condiciones para construir algo diferente? Multipolar no significa justo. La pregunta es si las fuerzas populares pueden pasar por la puerta antes de que se cierre.</p><p>&#129504; La tradici&#243;n de la Econom&#237;a Pol&#237;tica Tricontinental &#8212;de Baran a Amin, de Marini a Rodney, de Mao a Bambirra&#8212; de los tres continentes del Sur Global ha producido un cuerpo de pensamiento que la econom&#237;a mainstream ha intentado enterrar. Recuperamos a estos pensadores y ponemos a trabajar sus categor&#237;as sobre los problemas concretos de nuestro tiempo: la financiarizaci&#243;n, el capitalismo de plataformas, la transici&#243;n verde, la soberan&#237;a alimentaria y las crisis de deuda.</p><p>&#128506;&#65039; An&#225;lisis regionales &#8212; Estudios por pa&#237;s y por regi&#243;n que van m&#225;s all&#225; del titular: Am&#233;rica Latina, &#193;frica subsahariana, Asia del Sur y del Este. &#191;Qu&#233; dicen los datos sobre la fuga de capitales de Argentina? &#191;Qu&#233; sobre la estructura de clase detr&#225;s de la riqueza petrolera de Nigeria? &#191;Qu&#233; ocurre con la trayectoria industrial de la India?</p><p>QU&#201; ESPERAR</p><p>Art&#237;culos de fondo, an&#225;lisis basados en datos, estudios regionales y notas m&#225;s breves &#8212; todo con fundamento te&#243;rico y honestidad pol&#237;tica. Sin opinolog&#237;a. Sin titulares vac&#237;os. El tipo de an&#225;lisis que toma en serio a los tres continentes como productores de conocimiento, no solo como objetos de estudio.</p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Start Here: What This Substack Is About]]></title><description><![CDATA[There is a question that haunts the three continents.]]></description><link>https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/start-here-what-this-substack-is</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/start-here-what-this-substack-is</guid><pubDate>Thu, 12 Feb 2026 02:53:47 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kcDn!,w_256,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7bfc009f-d558-43fb-b2ed-6bb584b5845c_1280x1280.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>There is a question that haunts the three continents.</p><p>It is not why we are poor &#8212; because we are not poor. Latin America, Africa, and Asia hold the world&#8217;s minerals, oil, lithium, fertile soil, and labour. The question is not about scarcity. It has never been about scarcity.</p><p>The question is: where does the wealth go &#8212; and who decides how it is distributed?</p><p>This Substack follows the surplus. We trace how wealth is extracted from the countries that produce it and accumulated by the countries that don&#8217;t &#8212; through capital flight, debt traps, unequal exchange, and the class alliances that make the whole system work.</p><p>This is a collective project of Tricontinental Political Economy at Tricontinental: Institute for Social Research. Our team brings together researchers across Latin America, Africa, and Asia &#8212; the three continents whose intellectual traditions and political struggles gave rise to dependency theory in the first place. Each article is signed by its author or authors, but the programme is shared: rigorous theory, empirical evidence constructed from the standpoint of the three continents, and the political question that dependency theory has always insisted on asking &#8212; not just how does the system work? but what would it take to change it?</p><p><strong>WHERE TO START</strong></p><p>This Substack is built as a cumulative argument. Each series of notes takes up one dimension of the dependency structure. Here&#8217;s where to begin, depending on what interests you: </p><p>&#128202; <strong>The data</strong> &#8212; &#8220;Where Does the Surplus Go?&#8221; asks what happens to the wealth produced in the Global South. Using diverse indicators of dependent accumulation across 41 countries and 26 years &#8212; surplus reinvestment, capital flight, unequal exchange, productive concentration &#8212; we track how Latin America reinvests only 15% of its economic surplus while China reinvests 36%. The gap explains &#8216;underdevelopment&#8217; better than any corruption index.</p><p>&#128184; <strong>The financial trap</strong> &#8212; &#8220;The Financial Leash&#8221; maps capital flight across Latin America and Africa. Chile loses 9.1% of its GDP annually. Nigeria lost $340 billion. The Republic of Congo&#8217;s capital flight is equal to 706% of its GDP. The data is devastating &#8212; and it has a direction.</p><p>&#129517; <strong>The framework</strong> &#8212; We build original analytical tools to measure dependency across multiple dimensions simultaneously: commercial, financial, productive, network, distributive, and technological. Not just &#8216;are you dependent?&#8217; but how, through which channels, and what would it take to break free.</p><p>&#127757; <strong>The geopolitics</strong> &#8212; If the old hegemony is dying, what are the conditions for building something different? Multipolar does not mean just. The question is whether popular forces can walk through the door before it closes.</p><p>&#129504; <strong>The tradition</strong> &#8212; From Baran to Amin, from Marini to Rodney, from Mao to Bambirra, the three continents of the Global South have produced a body of thought that mainstream economics has tried to bury. We recover these thinkers and put their categories to work on the concrete problems of our time: financialisation, platform capitalism, the green transition, food sovereignty, and debt crises.</p><p>&#128506;&#65039; <strong>Regional analyses</strong> &#8212; Country and regional studies that go beyond the headline: Latin America, Sub-Saharan Africa, South and East Asia. What does the data say about Argentina&#8217;s capital flight? About the class structure behind Nigeria&#8217;s oil wealth? About India&#8217;s industrial trajectory?</p><p><strong>WHAT TO EXPECT</strong></p><p>Long-form articles, data-driven analyses, regional studies, and shorter notes &#8212; all theoretically grounded and politically honest. No punditry. No hot takes. The kind of analysis that takes the three continents seriously as producers of knowledge, not just objects of study.</p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[The Global South Between Dependence and Hope]]></title><description><![CDATA[Pero aqu&#237; abajo, cerca de las ra&#237;ces,]]></description><link>https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/the-global-south-between-dependence</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/the-global-south-between-dependence</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Tricon Political Economy]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Wed, 11 Feb 2026 16:53:43 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kcDn!,w_256,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7bfc009f-d558-43fb-b2ed-6bb584b5845c_1280x1280.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe now&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/subscribe?"><span>Subscribe now</span></a></p><p></p><blockquote><p><em>Pero aqu&#237; abajo, cerca de las ra&#237;ces,</em></p><p><em>es donde la memoria</em></p><p><em>ning&#250;n recuerdo omite</em></p><p><em>y hay quienes se desmueren</em></p><p><em>y hay quienes se desviven</em></p><p><em>y as&#237; entre todos logran</em></p><p><em>lo que era un imposible,</em></p><p><em>que todo el mundo sepa</em></p><p><em>que el sur, el sur tambi&#233;n existe</em></p><p>&#8212; Mario Benedetti, <em>El Sur Tambi&#233;n Existe</em></p></blockquote><p>&#8226; &#8226; &#8226;</p><p>There is a question that haunts the three continents.</p><p>It is not why we are poor &#8212; because we are not poor. Latin America, Africa, and Asia hold the world&#8217;s minerals, oil, lithium, fertile soil, forests, rivers, and labour. The question is not about scarcity. It has never been about scarcity.</p><p>The question is: where does the wealth go &#8212; and who decides how it is distributed?</p><p>It goes into copper extracted in Chile and refined in Hamburg. Into cobalt mined by children in Congo and soldered into batteries in Seoul. Into soybeans grown on land that was once the Atlantic Forest and crushed into animal feed in Rotterdam. Into code written at three in the morning in Bangalore and sold under a brand registered in Delaware. Into oil pulled from beneath the Orinoco and priced on a trading floor in London by people who have never seen Venezuela on a map.</p><p>It goes, above all, into numbers. Into financial flows that cross borders at the speed of light and leave behind unemployment that lasts a generation. Into debt payments that consume the budgets of hospitals and schools. Into capital flight &#8212; the quiet, legal, devastating movement of wealth from the countries that produce it to the countries that accumulate it.</p><p>This is not a conspiracy. It is a structure. It has a history &#8212; five centuries long &#8212; and a logic that can be studied, measured, and named.</p><p>This Substack is an attempt to build a Tricontinental Political Economy: the Political Economy of the Global South adequate to the present moment &#8212; a moment suspended between the deepening of dependency and the real possibility of overcoming it.</p><p>The classical political economists of the three continents &#8212; Marini and Bambirra in Latin America, Samir Amin and Walter Rodney in Africa, De Silva, Patnaik, and the Bandung generation in Asia, and Marxist economists of the North with the capacity to understand the particular situation of the peripheral nations as Paul Baran &#8212; understood that the global economy is not a level playing field on which nations compete according to their talents. It is a hierarchical system, constructed over centuries of colonial extraction, in which some regions produce the world&#8217;s wealth and others accumulate it. They called this structure dependency, and they spent their lives mapping its mechanisms: unequal exchange, super-exploitation of labour, surplus transfer, technological subordination, the role of comprador elites in sustaining extraction from within.</p><p>Their work was buried under decades of neoliberal orthodoxy. The Washington Consensus insisted the problem was us &#8212; our institutions, our corruption, our failure to &#8220;get the fundamentals right.&#8221; Development economics became a branch of management consulting: fix the business climate, attract foreign investment, liberalize the capital account, and growth will follow. It did not follow. What followed was deindustrialization, debt crises, structural adjustment, and the largest peacetime transfer of wealth from poor countries to rich countries in human history.</p><p>But the world that produced the Washington Consensus is itself in crisis. The Western-led accumulation project that has structured the global economy since Bretton Woods is fracturing under the weight of its own debts, contradictions, and declining productive capacity. The United States, which in 1995 owed the rest of the world the equivalent of 26% of its GDP, now owes 112%. France has gone from 46% to 232%. The turn to finance is, as Arrighi taught us, the autumn of every hegemonic cycle: the sign not of strength but of a power that can no longer sustain its dominance through production and must resort to leveraging the structural privilege of its currency and its institutions. And as that hegemony declines, it does not accommodate &#8212; it intensifies. Sanctions, trade wars, military interventions, the weaponization of the dollar: what is called &#8220;Hybrid World War&#8221; waged by a declining empire against the emergence of a multipolar order.</p><p>In this interregnum &#8212; between the old order that is dying and the new one that is struggling to be born &#8212; the conditions for building something different are more favourable than at any point in half a century. China&#8217;s rise has demonstrated that industrialization and sovereign development are possible outside the Western core. The BRICS, for all their contradictions, have opened cracks in the institutional architecture of dollar hegemony. The return of industrial policy in the Global North itself is an involuntary confession that the neoliberal model has failed on its own terms.</p><p>But favourable conditions are not the same as transformation. The structures of dependency do not dissolve because the hegemon weakens. They have to be dismantled &#8212; consciously, politically, from below &#8212; by the social forces that have the most to gain from sovereign development and the least to lose from confronting the interests that keep the periphery chained to subordination.</p><p>That is what this Substack will do. Follow the surplus &#8212; across every dimension through which it is produced, extracted, transferred, and accumulated &#8212; and map the conditions under which the transfer can be reversed.</p><p>Dependency is not one thing. It is a structure with many faces &#8212; commercial, technological, financial, productive, distributive &#8212; each reinforcing the others, each operating at a different phase of the capital cycle, each with its own institutional architecture and its own beneficiaries. Why do countries that export copper, soy, and oil remain poor while countries that import them grow rich? Why does Argentina collapse under 42% external debt while France accumulates 232% without a crisis? Why do Latin American bourgeoisies reinvest only 15% of the economic surplus while China reinvests 36%? Who controls global value chains &#8212; and why can&#8217;t peripheral firms move up? Where does the surplus go when it leaves &#8212; and through what channels?</p><p>These questions cannot be answered one at a time. They are dimensions of a single structure, and they demand a framework capable of seeing the whole: the mechanisms of extraction and the state capacities required to resist them, set against the geopolitical conjuncture &#8212; the crisis of US hegemony, the rise of the BRICS, the new imperial belligerence &#8212; that both constrains and enables transformation. Each series of notes published here will take up one or more of these dimensions, always with the same method: rigorous theory, empirical evidence constructed from the standpoint of the three continents, and the political question that dependency theory has always insisted on asking &#8212; not just how does the system work? But what would it take to change it?</p><p>The first series of notes, which begins next week, opens one window into the financial dimension: how the economic surplus is diverted from productive investment, how capital flees the periphery, and how the debt-flight-crisis cycle operates as a permanent mechanism of subordination. But this is only a beginning. The programme is long, the questions are urgent, and the answers &#8212; as the classical dependency theorists understood &#8212; are not merely academic. They are political.</p><p>There is a line from Eduardo Galeano that never quite leaves me:</p><blockquote><p><em>Our wealth has always generated our poverty in order to feed the prosperity of others.</em></p></blockquote><p>That sentence contains the entire programme of this Substack. The wealth is real. Poverty is produced. And the transfer has a direction, a history, and beneficiaries with names and addresses.</p><p>The loss was never accidental. But neither is it permanent. In the cracks of a dying hegemony, something else is being built &#8212; unevenly, contradictorily, against enormous resistance. This Substack is one small contribution to the intellectual work that transformation requires.</p><p>The title of this project names the two poles of our present: the tricontinental perspective lives between dependence and hope. Dependence is the structure we inherit &#8212; five centuries of extraction made automatic by interest rate differentials and credit ratings. Hope is not optimism. It is the recognition, grounded in evidence and in the historical record of struggle, that the structure can be broken &#8212; and that it has been broken before, by the same peoples who are told, every day, that the problem is them.</p><p>Welcome. Let&#8217;s follow the surplus.</p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/the-global-south-between-dependence?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Share&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/the-global-south-between-dependence?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share"><span>Share</span></a></p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/the-global-south-between-dependence/comments&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Leave a comment&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://triconpoliticaleconomy.substack.com/p/the-global-south-between-dependence/comments"><span>Leave a comment</span></a></p><div class="directMessage button" data-attrs="{&quot;userId&quot;:449778883,&quot;userName&quot;:&quot;GS Political Economy&quot;,&quot;canDm&quot;:null,&quot;dmUpgradeOptions&quot;:null,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true}" data-component-name="DirectMessageToDOM"></div><p></p><p><em>Emiliano L&#243;pez is a researcher at CONICET-Universidad Nacional de La Plata and Chief Economist at Tricontinental: Institute for Social Research.</em></p><p><em>Contact: <a href="mailto:emiliano@thetricontinental.org">emiliano@thetricontinental.org</a> <br>X: @GsEconomist</em></p>]]></content:encoded></item></channel></rss>